UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT    LOS  ANGELES 


1 


GIFT  OF 

Ff  ci  Lf.Mds   "nivf  rsl  ty 


A  , 

•:•>,    '^ 


MUCK    MANUAL 


A    TREATISE   ON    THE   PHYSICAL   AND    CHEMICAL    PROPERTIES   OF    SOILS; 

THE   CHEMISTRY   OF   MANURES;   INCLUDING   ALSO  THE   SUBJECTS 

OF   COMPOSTS,  ARTIFICIAL   MANURES    AND   IRRIGATION. 


BY    SAMUEL    L.    DANA. 


"It  is  usual  to  help  the  ground  with  muck,  and  likewise  to  recomfort  with  muck, 
put  to  the  roots  ;  but  to  water  it  with  muck-water,  which  is  like  to  be  more  forci- 
ble, is  not  practiced." — BACON. 


FOURTH   EDITION, 
With  a  new  Chapter  on  Bones  and  Superphosphates. 


NEW    YORK: 

A.    O.    MOORE,    AGRICULTURAL    BOOT-:    PUBLISHER, 

(I.ATE  C.  M.   BAXTOJf   A   CO.,) 

No.   140   FULTON    STREET. 

1858. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congrw,  in  Ihe  yi-ar  1855,  by  S.    L.    BAXA,   in  ih« 
Clerk '•  Office  of  Ihe  Dixirirt  <'««rt  of  the  l>i»lri<-l  of  Nfw  York. 


TO    THE 

CITIZENS   OF  LOWELL, 

ril.ESE    PAOES,    THE   PITH   OF   EIGHT   LECTURES   ON   THE 
CHEMISTRY    OF    SOIL    AND    MANURE, 

DSLmSP.KD   BY  THEIR   REQUEST, 

ct full»    KnscttlieB, 
BY  THE  AUTHOR. 


t  ->   f    —  -  <v 

^  C«r««aiio  Circct.   ;, 

^-O-nu,-,-^    V 


THE  dedication  of  this  volume  shows  its  origin  and 
object.  The  Author  is  not  an  agriculturist,  he  does 
not  assume  the  name  even  of  agricultural  chemist. 
Practical  chemistry  is  his  profession,  and  has  been  for 
some  thirty  years.  During  the  greatest  portion  of 
this  time  he  has  been  attached  as  chemist  to  the  Print- 
works of  the  Merrimack  Manufacturing  Company,  in 
Lowell.  While  pursuing  there,  during  the  years  1835, 
'36,  and  '37,  researches  on  the  action  of  cow-dung  in 
calico  dyeing,  he  pushed  his  inquiries,  as  a  recreation 
during  his  few  leisure  hours,  into  the  nature  and  action 
of  manures  and  of  soil. 

Conversation  on  these  matters  with  the  geological 
surveyor,  and  with  the  agricultural  commissioner  of 
Massachusetts,  led  to  a  correspondence  between  the 
parties,  which  partly  appeared  in  the  published  reports 
on  the  geology  and  agriculture  of  Massachusetts.  This 

(5) 


VI  PREFACE. 

induced  some  zealous  and  active  citizens  of  Lowell,  to 
ask  me  to  deliver  a  course  of  lectures  on  agricultural 
chemistry.  My  reading  on  that  subject  had  been  Very 
limited;  yet,  willing  to  contribute  my  mite  to  so 
good  a  cause,  and  to  embody  my  own  notions  on  this 
subject,  notes  for  the  lectures  were  prepared  week  by 
week  as  they  were  delivered;  and  urged  to  their  pub- 
lication, the  notes  were  thrown  into  chapters  and  sec- 
tions, and  so  the  book  appeared  at  last,  divested  of 
the  colloqmal  style  befitting  the  lecture  room,  and  so 
much  condensed  as  to  be  scarcely  recognizable  as  lec- 
tures. The  work  was  favorably  received  at  home 
and  abroad,  where  a  considerable  portion  was  re- 
printed. It  has  passed  through  several  editions,  each 
being  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  new  matter,  to  keep 
pace  with  the  times.  To  the  present  edition  is  added 
an  entire  new  chapter  on  bones,  and  superphosphates 
of  lime  and  alkalies.  Should  another  edition  be  called 
for,  I  trust  it  will  be  then  and  there  shown  in  a  new 
chapter  on  the  analysis  of  the  mineral  part  of  soil, 
that,  agriculture  in  demanding  of  chemistry  any  real 
practical  result  from  such  analyses  of  soils  beyond 
this,  their  great  uniformity  of  composition,  is  asking 


PREFACE.  Vll 

an  impossibility.  That  is  my  opinion.  Not  so  with  the 
vegetable  part  of  soil.  I  have  endeavored  in  the  fol- 
lowing pages  to  set  forth  the  high  importance  of  deter- 
mining the  state  and  condition  of  this ;  to  show  that 
its  presence  in  soil  is  of  the  utmost  consequence,  and 
that,  without  it,  full  crops  are  not  to  be  raised.  This 
is  my  conviction. 

One  word  respecting  the  title  of  my  book.  It  is 
my  own.  I  have  neither  begged,  borrowed,  or  stolen 
it.  That  last  has  been  done  by  an  English  Author, 
who  seems  to  be  ashamed  not  of  the  act,  but  of  the 
name  he  has  filched  from  me,  and  so  eases  his  con- 
science by  apologizing  for  his  "homely  title." 

I  shall  not  discredit  my  child  by  being  ashamed  of 
his  name.  It  was  good  at  the  christening,  and  I  trust 
will  be  thought  respectable  in  manhood. 

S.  L.  D. 

LOWELL,  June  1st,  1855. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 


GEOLOGY  OF  Son, Page  17 

Objects  of  agricultural  chemistry  ;  objects  and  nature  of  agricultural  geology  ; 
definition  of  the  terms,  primary  and  secondary  ;  rocks  have  one  common  origin  ; 
the  terms  primary  and  secondary  soil  are  useless  ;  rocks  and  soil  are  to  be  classed 
by  their  origin  and  distribution  ;  in  their  origin  all  rocks  are  igneous  or  by  fire  ; 
chemical  constitution  of  all  rocks  similar  ;  there  is  one  rock  and  one  soil  ;  chem- 
ical constitution  of  rocks  does  not  affect  the  vegetation  over  them  ;  geographical 
distribution  of  plants  ;  the  laws  which  govern  it  ;  rocks  do  not  form  the  soil 
which  covers  them  ;  general  uniformity  of  chemical  composition  of  foil ;  proofs 
of  general  uniformity  of  composition  ;  from  Massachusetts  soil,  146  specimens, 
and  from  various  parts  of  the  world,  267  specimens  ;  remarks  on  soil  analyses, 
all  are  imperfect  approximations  only  to  truth  ;  the  largest  portion  of  soil,  least 
liable  to  be  affected  by  different  modes  of  analysis  ;  by  any  mode,  soil  divides 
itself  into  two  portions — soluble  and  insoluble  ;  several  elements  in  soil  often 
educed  by  analysis,  which  should  be  included  in  the  insoluble  portion  of  soil  ; 
carbonate  of  lime,  too  often  a  product,  not  an  educt  of  analysis  ;  potash  and 
soda  of  soil  to  be  considered  generally  as  combined  with  the  organic  matter  ; 
clay,  iron,  magnesia  to  be  included  in  the  insoluble  ingredients  ;  plaster,  phos- 
phate of  lime,  or  bone-dust  in  the  soluble  ingredients  of  soil  ;  division  of  ele- 
ments of  soil  into  soluble,  insoluble,  and  salts  of  lime  ;  table  of  analyses  of  413 
soils  from  all  parts  of  the  world  ;  principles  deduced  from  this  table  and  its  re- 
sults ;  rule  for  calculating  the  amount  per  acre  from  results  per  100  parts  of 
soil ;  analyses  of  vine  grown  on  soils  formed  from  different  geological  districts. 


CHAPTER  If. 

CHEMICAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  ROCKS  AND  SOILS •    .    .    38 

Different  views  taken  of  rocks  by  geologists,  mineralogists  and  chemists  ;  farmer 
takes  only  the  chemical  view  ;  nature  of  agricultural  mineralogy  ;  farmer  must 
understand  the  results  of  the  analysis  of  minerals  ;  division  of  the  thirteen  sub- 

(9) 


C  •  CONTENTS. 

stances  forming  rock*,  into  silicate*,  metalloid  compounds,  sails, — explanation  of 
these  terms  ;  chemistry  of  soil ;  chemical  notation  ;  the  three  laws  of  affinity 
explained  ;  constitution  of  simple  minerals  composing  rocks  ;  rocks  are  masses 
of  silicates  ;  the  whole  is  dived  into  three  classes  only. 


CHAPTER   III. 

OF  THK  ELKKKTB  OF  SOIL,  THDR  PROPERTIES  AND  Cmnncu,  ACTION 63 

The  common  properties  of  the  bases  of  silicates  ;  characters  of  the  class  metal- 
loid compounds ;  particular  description  of  silicon,  or  the  base  of  flinty  earth  ; 
composition  of  granite  and  the  soil  which  it  forms  ;  quantity  of  alkalies  in  bar- 
ren plains  ;  all  soil  contains  lime,  alkali,  A:c.,— enough  for  any  crop  grown  on 
it ;  action  of  air  and  moisture  upon  soil,  produces  salts;  origin  of  sulphate  and 
phosphate  of  lime  in  soil ;  all  soil  contains  these  substances. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

OF  THK  OROAXIC  Co5gifri.it.vra  OF  Son. 64 

Number  of  substances  forming  plants  ;  what  the  organic  constituents  of  soil  are  ; 
they  are  formed  by  the  action  of  the  living  plant;  plants  draw  their  inorganic 
constituents  ready  formed  from  the  soil  ;  two  great  divisions  of  the  elements  of 
soil  into  the  organic  and  inorganic  ;  soil  composed  of  either  division  alone,  bar- 
ren ;  of  the  laws  of  substitution  and  replacement,  which  affect  agriculture, 
organic  matter  in  soil  must  be  undergoing  change  ;  fertility  depends  on  chemi- 
cally induced  motion  ;  of  decay  and  putrefaction  ;  difference  of  products  of 
putrefaction  in  free  or  confined  air  ;  in  free  air,  products  are  water,  carbonic 
arid,  and  ammonia  :  in  confined  air,  besides  these,  various  compounds  of  sul- 
phur, phosphorus,  and  carlion,  witli  hydrogen  ;  products  vary  according  as  the 
decaying  body  is  on  the  soil,  in  the  soil,  or  in  the  subsoil  ;  hydrogen  always  in 
excess  ;  importance  of  this  principle ;  decay  always  results  in  a  substanca 
termed  gcine  ;  this  is  a  generic  name  including  several  products  ;  at  least  seven 
well-defined  substances  found  in  geine,  viz.  :  ulmin  and  ulniic  acid,  humin  and 
humic,  geic,  crenic  and  apocrenic  acids  ;  division  of  these  forms  of  geine  into 
the  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  neutral  groups  ;  of  the  order  of  the  products  of  de- 
composition, of  decaying  matter  in  roil ;  ultimate  products  are  carbonic  acid 
and  water  ;  crenic  and  apocrenic  acid  when  pure  contain  no  nitrogen  ;  no 
ground  for  division  of  forms  of  gcine  into  nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous  ;  all 
forms  may  contain  nitrogen  as  ammonia  ;  geine  divided  into  soluble  and  insol- 
uble ;  characters  of  the  two  clashes  ;  how  distinguished  by  their  relation  to  acids; 
the  organic  acid  seldom  found  free  in  soil  ;  several  bases  may  be  found  in  com- 
bination with  one  acid  forming  soluble  salts,  which  contribute  to  the  growth  of 
plants  ;  detailed  account  of  crenic  and  apocrenic  acids  ;  two  constant  sources 
of  reproduction  of  these  acids  ;  of  the  formation  of  nitric  acid,  and  nitrates  and 


CONTENTS,  XI 

apocrenates  in  soil,  by  transformations  of  geine  ;  crenic  and  apocrenic  acids 
mutually  convertible  ;  all  the  transformations  of  geine,  worthy  of  study  ;  geine 
is  essential  to  agriculture,  APPENDIX  to  Chap.  iv.  p.  100  ;  of  the  chemical  his- 
tory of  geine  and  recent  researches  of  Mulder  on  this  subject ;  reasons  why  geine 
is  essential  may  be  deduced  from  Mulder's  researches. 


CHAPTER  V. 

OP  THE  MUTUAL  ACTION  OF  THB  ORGANIC  AND  INORGANIC  ELEMENTS  OF  SOIL     .      .      .     101 

Theoretical  and  practical  farmers  both  aim  at  the  same  object ;  the  action  of  the 
elements  of  soil  to  be  considered  in  two  ways — 1  st,  the  mutual  chemical  action 
of  the  organic  and  inorganic  parts — 2d,  the  influence  of  growing  plants  on  this 
action  ;  of  the  importance  of  salts  to  this  action  ;  of  the  action  of  carbonic  acid 
and  the  carbonates  upon  the  silicates  of  soil  ;  of  the  modification  produced  upon 
this  action  by  the  presence  of  life  ;  of  catalysis  or  the  action  of  presence,  by 
which  life  acts  ;  of  the  action  of  mineral  manures  in  agriculture  ;  their  earthy  or 
alkaline  part  always  acts  one  way  ;  their  acid  part  produces  differences  of  ac- 
tion ;  illustration  and  explanation  of  the  action  of  salts  or  mineral  manures  ;  of 
the  action  of  nitre  ;  of  lime  ;  of  ashes  ;  of  the  composition  of  leached  and 
unleached  ashes. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

MANURE , 131 

Manures  contain  all  the  elements  which  plants  want — are  divided  into  three 
classes  ;  choice  and  determination  of  a  standard  of  value  for  manures  ;  nitro- 
gen, geine,  and  kind  of  salts  determine  the  value  of  manure  ;  pure  cow  dung 
the  type  of  all  other  manures  ;  its  composition  and  analysis  ;  yearly  produce  of 
salts  and  geine  by  one  cow  ;  the  action  of  manure  referred  to  the  joint  effect  of 
all  its  components  ;  its  action  due  chiefly  to  its  ammonia  ;  origin  of  this  in  dung  ; 
of  the  composition  and  value  of  horse-dung;  fermented  horse-dung  less  valuable 
than  cow-clung  ;  reasons  why  ;  mode  of  making  good  yard  manure  from  horse 
stable-dung  ;  of  yard 'manure  ;  importance  of  kind  of  litter  ;  relative  value  of 
different  straws  ;  fermentation  and  age  ;  its  effects  on  value  of  yard  manure  ; 
long  and  short,  or  strong  and  fat  muck  ;  loss  of  bulk  by  age  ;  statement  of  com- 
position of  yard  manure  ;  its  amount  of  nitrogen  and  ammonia  ;  compaiative 
weights  of  equal  bulks  of  ox  and  horse  manure  ;  drainings  of  manure  heaps  ; 
their  composition  and  value  ;  of  the  composition  and  value  of  human  excrement ; 
analyses  of  human  excrement  by  Berzelius,  and  by  Fleitmann  ;  great  amount  of 
phosphates  found  by  the  last-named  chemist ;  night-soil,  what  ;  its  quality  ;  how 
affected  by  its  source  ;  of  hog-manure  ;  sheep-manure  ;  of  the  quantity  of  manure 
from  1000  sheep  daily  ;  table  of  composition  of  ashes  of  the  excrements  of  pig, 
cow,  sheep,  and  horse  ;  relative  effect  of  these  manures,  and  of  night-soil  ;  on 
wh  tt  it  chiefly  depends  ;  nitrogen  expresses  the  true  value  of  manure  :  circuin- 


Xll  CONTENTS. 

nance*  which  limit  an.!  modify  iM«  principle  ;  (talc  in  which  nitrogen  kl.ou'il  ex- 
irt  in  manure,  lo  become  a  measure  of  us  value  ;  nitrogen  must  exist  a*  ammo- 
nia, or  in  a  combination  which  readily  permits  the  formation  of  ammonia  :  in 
salu,  the  ease  with  which  nitrogen  is  given  up  by  different  salts  containing  it,  af- 
fect* their  value  ;  time  an  element  in  determining  value  of  manure  ;  in  organic! 
matter,  nitrogen  effective  in  proportion  to  rapidity  of  decay  ;  distinction  to  b« 
t:n'..  .1  in  >a!l«,  l.etwecii  tin-  action  of  the  base,  and  a  nitrogenous  acid  combined 
with  it  ;  influence  of  pure  salts  of  ammonia  ;  their  value  is  almost  in  direct  ratio 
to  their  nitrogen,  modified  by  ease  of  decomposition  ;  proofs  from  Kuhlmau's  ex- 
periments ;  100  parts  nilrogtn  in  manure,  whatever  its  origin,  produces  in  ii  .•• 
circumstances  like  effects  ;  influence  of  moist  and  dry  seasons  on  manure  ;  am- 
monia in  manure  it  ordinarily  in  the  state  of  carbonate  ;  comparative  effects  of 
carbonate  nnd  sulphate  of  ammonia,  used  as  manure  ;  Jucquemart's  experiments 
with  these  salts  ;  proof  of  the  principle  that  nitrogen  determines  the  value  of 
manure,  drawn  from  effect  of  nitrate  of  soda  ;  nitrogen  enables  plants  to  grow 
more  in  given  time  ;  general  account  of  its  effect*  in  agriculture  ;  of  gadou  or 
Flanders'  manure,  mode  of  preparing  ;  its  value  nnd  effects  ;  poudrelte,  what  it 
is  ;  preparation  of ;  description  of  the  process  for  preparing  poudrette  in  France, 
the  birth-place  of  this  manufacture  ;  suggestions  for  making  poudrette  near  all 
large  cities  and  towns  ;  "  anirnalized  black,"  what ;  cost  and  value  of  poudrette; 
of  the  composition  nnd  efforts  of  gnnno  ;  its  actuul  money  value  to  the  farmer  ; 
of  the  value  of  the  droppinics  of  domestic  fowl*  ;  of  the  composition  of  fish,  flesh, 
fowl,  gristle,  skin,  sinews.  ie.  ;  they  all  afford  mineral,  vegetable  and  animal 
salu;  of  the  composition  of  tlie  great  bulk  of  animil  bodies,  fibrine,  albumen, 
caseine  ;  vegetables  afford  similar  products  ;  these  similar  and  identical  products 
loi  in  proteinu  ;  of  iu  composition  and  value  as  a  manure  ;  of  the  value  of  sinews, 
gristle,  skin,  hair,  horns,  111:1:0,  wool,  and  feathers  ;  all  animal  and  vegetable 
products  form  two  classes,  thut  which  does  and  that  which  does  not  contain  nitro- 
gen ;  of  the  composition  and  value  of  bone*  us  a  manure  ;  of  fats  and  oils  ;  of 
root ;  n:'  spent  lye  ;  of  artificial  (-pent  lye  ;  of  liquid  animal  manures  ;  of  the  pecu- 
liar principle  which  gives  them  their  value  ;  it*  analysis,  composition  and  action  ; 
of  the  analysis  of  cuttle  urine — its  value  as  a  manure  ;  urine  of  the  horse,  nhcep, 
and  hog  ;  of  human  urine — its  value  and  composition. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

AKTinciAi.  MAXURKU,  AMU  IRRIGATION,  . 206 

Of  the  nature,  analysis  and  composition  of  |><-at,  swamp-muck  and  pond  mud  ;  what 
i*  wanting  lo  give  these  the  value  of  cow-dung  is  alkali  ;  of  the  relative  value  of 
ammonia,  potash,  soda,  and  ashes,  which  may  he  used  for  this  purpose  ;  of  the 
<|iixntity  in  which  these  may  be  added  lo  a  cord  of  peat ;  of  the  composl  of  peat 
with  animal  manure  ;  of  the  various  substances  used  for  forming  artificial  ma- 
nure with  peat,  and  their  relative  value  ;  of  the  use  of  peal  recently  in  France  ; 
use  of  dried  peat  and  ammoniiical  salts  ;  its  value  compared  with  poudretle;  of 
g;i»  liquor  and  peat  ;  mode  of  forming  gas  or  peat  poudretto  at  gns  works  ;  of 
rcnnposu  without  peal  or  stable  manure  ;  of  Jauffrct's  principles  of  composing  • 


CONTENTS.  Xlll 

of  the  value  of  different  straws  for  this  purpose  ;  of  the  principles  of  irrigation  ;  of 
the  action  of  pure  and  impure  water  ;  of  the  composition  of  the  deposits  from 
freshets  ;  the  nature,  action,  and  value  of  rain  and  snow,  in  agriculture  ;  "  snow 
the  poor  man's  manure," — how  far  this  is  true  ;  of  paring  and  burning  j  of  turn- 
ing in  green  and  dry  crops. 


CHAPTER  V11I. 

PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  Son., 242 

Great  differences  in  soil  depend  upon  physical  not  upon  chemical  properties  ;  physi- 
sical  properties  independent  of  chemical  constitution ;  opinion  of  Liebig  on  this 
subject ;  physical  characters  of  soil  are  dependent  on  its  relation  to  heat,  moist- 
ure, consistency,  and  electrical  state  ;  in  all  these  relations,  geine  acts  the  chief 
part ;  of  the  quantity  of  water  produced  by  the  decomposition  and  waste  of  geine  ; 
the  amount  evaporated  per  acre  from  this  source  ;  the  quantity  evaporated  from 
woodland,  exceeds  the  amount  of  rain  which  falls;  of  the  waste  of  geine  caused 
by  this  evaporation  of  water  ;  of  the  proportion  of  carbon  which  is  derived  from 
the  soil,  and  from  the  air  by  forest  trees. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

BOXES,  SUPERPHOSPHATE  OF  LIMB,  A\D  ITS  PREPARATION, 251 

Of  the  composition  of  bones  ;  consist  of  an  animal  and  of  a  mineral  part  ;  bones 
net  as  forcing  vegetation  or  as  developing  and  forming  seed  ;  the  first  depends  on 
the  fermentation  of  the  animal  part  of  bone,  producing  ammonia  ;  the  second 
action  depends  on  the  mineral  part  of  bone  ;  bones  seed  formers,  or  root,  leaf, 
;>nd  stem  formers  ;  bones  to  be  studied  as  entire,  or  partially,  or  wholly  deprived 
of  their  gelatinous  parts ;  composition  of  entire  bone  ;  no  practical  use  to  be 
made  of  bone  by  the  farmer,  til)  the  bone  is  reduced  to  powder  ;  of  the  composi- 
tion of  bone  partially  deprived  of  its  animal  parts  ;  how  this  is  to  be  effected  ;  of 
boiling  and  steaming  bones;  how  such  bones  are  best  used  ;  of  bone  ash,  or  bone 
deprived  of  all  its  animal  matter  ;  of  sugar-house  refuse,  and  animal  black  ;  of 
the  treatment  of  bones  and  bone  asli  by  acids,  as  oil  of  vitriol,  to  produce  super- 
phosphate of  lime  ;  no  solution  of  bone  in  this  case,  is  rather  a  pap-forming  pro- 
cess ;  explanation  and  illustration  of  the  process  ;  account  of  the  properties  of 
phosphoric  acid  ;  final  result  of  the  action  of  oil  of  vitriol  on  bones,  in  the  right 
proportion,  is  the  formation  of  plaster,  and  superphosphate  of  lime  with  free  oil 
of  vitriol ;  of  the  quantity  of  oil  of  vitriol  required  by  raw  bones;  by  bones 
partly  cooked  :  by  bone  ash  ;  of  the  composition  of  superphosphate  of  lime  ;  of 
its  solubility  in  water  ;  of  the  process  to  be  followed  to  prepare  superphosphate 
of  lime,  and  of  the  cost  of  that  product;  it  should  contain  all  the  phosphoric  acid 
of  bone  in  a  soluble  state;  great  importance  of  this  point  ;  how  best  effected  ; 
phosphoric  acid  must  not  be  free  ;  so'.uble  a'haHne  phosphates  most  desirable  for 


CONTENTS. 


the  farmer  ;  recipes  for  forming  iach  »alu  ;  how  ihete  are  to  be  used  ;  of  then 
effects,  and  of  their  general  application  ;  of  the  effects  of  nitrogenous  compounds 
mixed  with  alkaline  phosphates  ;  of  the  mixture  of  nitrates  with  alkaline  phos- 
phates ;  and  their  cost  ;  recommendation  of  trial  of  mixture  of  superphosphates 
and  of  fowl  droppings. 


Amwnix,    .  .  269 

ISDIX,    ...  296 


(16) 


MUCK    MA.NU.AJL. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GEOLOGY     OF     SOIL. 

1.  AGRICULTURAL  chemistry  aims  to  explain  all  the  actions 
of  earth,  air,  and  water,  upon  plants.     It  refers  to  all  their 
chemical    relations,  to  the  geology,  mineralogy  and  chem- 
istry of  soil. 

2.  Agricultural  geology  explains  the  relations  which  soil 
bears  to  plants,  and  the  manner  in  which  that  affects  vege- 
tation. 

3.  Agricultural  geology  confines  itself  to  facts.     It  digs 
into  the  earth,  observes  what  composes  that.     Conversant 
only  with  facts,  or  logical  deductions  from   these,  it  leaves 
to  geology  proper,  the  vast  mass  of  observations,  supported 
by  the  highest  modern   science,  which  teaches  the  origin, 
mode  of  formation,  original  condition  of  our  globe,  and  the 
successive  changes  which  it  has  undergone. 

4.  The  terms,  primary  and  secondary,  used  by  geologists, 
are  almost  parts  of  common  language, — yet  need  to  be  ex- 
plained to  the  farmer. 

5.  Large  tracts  of  all  extensive  countries  are  composed 
of  rocks  of  a  granitic  textuKe.     This  needs  no  definition. 
Such  rocks  having  been  observed  to  underlay  all  others,  in 
the  scale  of  rocks  composing  the  earth's  crust,  were  called 
primary.     It  was  supposed  that  these   were  first  formed. 
Out  of  the  ruins  of  these,  no  matter  when  or  how  ruined, 

(IT) 


18  GEOLOGY  OF  SOIL. 

other  rocks  have  been  made,  called  secondary.  The  ruins 
of  the  primary  rocks  have  been  transported  by  water,  and 
then  gradually  deposited  layer  upon  layer.  Under  immense 
pressure,  these  layers  of  mud,  sand,  fine  gravel,  rolled 
stones,  &c.,  have  been  hardened  into  solid  rock,  and  have 
formed  sandstones,  slates,  or  even  rocks  presenting  the 
crystalline  structure  or  texture  of  granite,  by  the  action  of 
heat,  which  the  facts  of  modern  geology  teach  exists  in  the 
interior  of  our  globe. 

6.  This  internal  heat  is  supposed  to  be  the  cause  of  volca- 
noes, and  the  primary  rocks  to  have  been  the  ejections  under 
circumstances  unknown,  of  the  melted  mass  of  the  globe ; 
ejections  similar  in  kind  to  those  of  modern  lava,  but  greater 
in  degree. 

7.  Intermediate  between  modern  lava  and  primitive  rocks, 
and  actually  passing  into  either,  is  a  large  class  of  ancient 
volcanic  rocks,  called  trappean  ;  such  are  basalt,  trap,  green- 
stone and  highly  crystalline  porphyry. 

8.  However   named  and   classed   are  the   rocks  of  the 
earth's  surface,  they  have  had  one  common  origin,  the  molten 
matter  of  the  globe.     Hence,  having  a  common  origin,  their 
ultimate  chemical  constituents  are  similar.     If  granitic  rocks 
have  a  certain  chemical  constitution,  then  sandstone,  slate, 
&c.,  having  been  formed    from  worn-out  and    worn-down 
granitic  rocks,  have  a  constitution  chemically  like  them. 

9.  To  "the  agriculturist  the  terms  primary  and  secondary 
are  unnecessary.     Equally  so  are  all  distinctions  of  soil 
based  on  these  terms. 

10.  Soil  is  the  loose  material  covering  rocks,  and  it  is 
supposed  to  have  been  formed  from  their  decay.     Both  are 
to  be  classed  by  their  origin.     The  origin  of  rocks  refers  not 
only  to  the  mode  of  their  first  formation,  but  to  their  subse- 
quent  arrangement.      The   origin    of   all    rocks,   geology 


GEOLOGY   OF  SOIL.  19 

teaches,  is  from  the  molten  matter  of  the  globe.  These 
have  been  afterwards,  in  some  cases,  removed  by  water,  and 
in  part  remodified  by  heat  (5).  Referring  rocks  to  their 
origin,  they  are  divisible  into  two  great  classes. 

1st.  Those  formed  by  fire. 

2d.  Those  formed  by  water. 

11.  This  division  relates  both  to  the  origin  and  distribu- 
tion.   In  their  origin  all  rocks  are  truly  igneous,  or  from  fire. 
In  their  distribution  they  are  aqueous,  or  by  water.     This  is 
the  only  division  necessary  to  the  farmer.     It  is  the  division 
taught  and  demanded  by  agricultural  geology. 

12.  The  first  class  includes  all  the  highly  crystalline  rocks, 
granite,  gneiss,  sienite,  greenstone,  porphyry  ;  it  includes, 
also,  basalt  and  lava.     The  products  of  volcanoes,  whether 
ancient  or  modern,  agricultural  geology  places  in  the  same 
class,  including  thus  all  that  portion  which  forms  the  largest 
part  of  the  earth's  surface. 

13.  The  second  class  includes  sand,  clay,  gravel,  rounded 
and  rolled  stones  of  all  sizes,  pudding-stone,  conglomerates, 
sandstones,    slates.      When    these    various    substances    are 
examined,  a  large  part  of  sand  is  found  to  be   composed 
essentially  of  the  ingredients  of  the  igneous  rocks.     This  is 
true,  also,  of  sandstone,  slate,  of  conglomerates,  of  bowlders. 

14.  There  is  a  large  deposit,  or  formation,  in  some  dis- 
tricts,   composed  almost  wholly   of  some  of  the  chemical 
constituents  of  the  igneous  rocks,  united  to  air.     The  con- 
stituents are  lime  and  magnesia ;  the  air  is  carbonic  acid, 
forming,  by  their  union,  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia. 
Marble,  limestone,  chalk,  belong  to  this  formation.     These 
are  not  to  be  ranked  as  original   igneous   products  subse- 
quently distributed  by  water.     The  lime,  originally  a  part  of 
igneous  rocks,  has  been  separated  and  combined  with  air,  by 
animals  or  plants,  by  a  living  process  called  secretion.     The 


20  GEOLOGY   OF  SOIL. 

modern  production  of  carbonate  of  lime  is  still  going  on, 
under  the  forms  of  shells  and  corals.  Though  belonging  to 
neither  division,  the  subject  will  be  simplified  by  referring 
limestone  to  the  second  class  of  rocks ;  but  it  is  truly  a  salt, 
and  it  will  be  discussed  hereafter. 

15.  The  chemical  constitution  of  all  rocks  is  similar.     If 
rocks  are  divided  into  two  classes,  the  first  composed  of 
those  usually  called  primary,  such  as  granite,  gneiss,  mica- 
slate,  porphyry  ;  and  the  second  class,  composed  of  rocks 
usually  called  trappean,  as  basalt,  green-stone,  trap,  then  the 
great  difference  in  their  chemical  constitution  is  this  : 

The  first  or  granitic  class,  contains  about  20  per  cent, 
more  of  silex,  and  from  3  to  7  per  cent,  less  of  lime  and 
magnesia  and  iron,  than  the  second  or  trappean  class. 

16.  If  the  language  of  geology   is  borrowed,  and  rocks 
which  present  the  appearance  of  layers,  or   a  "  stratified 
structure,"  are  divided  into  two  classes,  fossiliferous  and  non- 
fossiliferous,  or  those  which  do,  and   those   which  do  not 
contain  remains  of  animals  or  plants,  it  will   be  found,  that 
the  fossiliferous  are  neither  granitic  nor  trappean,  yet  are 
they  to  be  classed  with  the  lost,  agreeing  with  these,  in  con- 
taining less  silica,  and  more  lime,  magnesia,  and  alumina. 

17.  The  stratified,  non-fussiliferous  rocks  agree  in  chemical 
composition  with  the  granitic,  and  the  fossiliferous  with  the 
trappean  and  volcanic. 

18.  The  trappean  and  fossiliferous  contain  the  most  lime 
and  magnesia;  the  granitic  and  non-fossiliferous,  the  most 
silex.     The  great  difference  in  chemical  composition  between 
the  two  classes,  is  produced  by  lime  and  magnesia,  two  sub- 
stances which,  more  than  all  others,  have  been  thought  to 
influence  the  character  of  soil. 

19.  The  amount  of  this  difference  is  about  from  3  to  7 
per  cent. ;  yet  notwithstanding  this,  the  general  chemical 


GEOLOGY   OF   SOIL.  21 

constitution  of  all  rocks  approachf-s  so  nearly  to  similarity, 
that  this  may  be  laid  down  as  the  first  principle  in  agricultural 
chemistry,  that  there  is  ONE  ROCK,  CONSEQUENTLY  ONE  SOIL. 

20.  To  the  farmer  all  soil  is  primary.     The  question  then 
arises,  How  do  rocks  and  soil  affect  vegetation  ?     As  a  con- 
sequence of  the  first  proposition,  it  may  be  laid  down  as  the 
second  principle  of  agricultural  chemistry,  ROCKS  DO  NOT 

AFFECT  THE  VEGETATION  WHICH    COVERS  THEM. 

21.  This  is  opposed  to  the   geological  doctrine   of  the 
times,  and  may  seem  to  be  opposed  to  the  statement  in 
section  18.      The  difference  there  stated  may  be  thought  to 
produce  corresponding  effects  in  vegetation.     This  would  be 
true  if  rocks   exerted  any  influence  on  soils,  due  to   their 
chemical  constitution.     A  survey  of  the  geographical  distri- 
bution of  plants,  used  for  food,  will  show  that  the  common 
doctrine  of  the  chemical  influence  of  rocks  on  vegetation  is 
not  so  well  supported  as  to   be  considered  an   established 
principle.     It  is  not  intended  to  deny  that  rocks  do,  by  their 
physical   condition,   affect  vegetation.     Unless  it  is  shown 
that  their  physical  state  depends  upon  their  chemical  consti- 
tution, the  second  principle  must  be  admitted  as  a  general 
truth. 

It  has  been  distinctly  avowed  by  Johnston  in  his  "  Lec- 
tures," since  the  appearance  of  the  first  edition  of  these 
pages,  "  that  where  the  soil  forms  only  a  surface  layer  of 
considerable  depth  of  transported  materials,  it  may  have  no 
relation  whatever,  either  in  mineralogical  characters  or  in 
chemical  constitution,  to  the  immediately  subjacent  rocks." 

This  is  the  general  disposition  of  soil.  It  is  admitted  by 
the  author  above  quoted,  that,  in  Great  Britain,  in  some 
counties,  and  in  nearly  all  the  coal-fields,  "  the  general  char- 
acter and  capabilities  of  the  soil  have  no  relation  whatever 
to  the  rocks  on  which  the  loose  materials  immediately  rest." 


22  GEOLOGY  OF  SOIL. 

A  distinguished  authority  in  our  country,  Prof.  Norton,  of 
Yale,  formerly  the  pupil  and  assistant  of  Prof.  Johnston, 
speaking  of  very  fertile  soils,  says  that  these  always  con- 
tain "appreciable  quantities  of  some  ten  or  twelve  sub- 
stances. It  makes  no  difference  from  whence  you  bring 
such  a  soil,  from  what  part  of  the  world  it  comes,  it  will 
invariably  contain  these  elements  in  greater  or  less  quantity." 
(Agr.  Address,  Northampton,  1849.)  Fertile  soils  are  not 
confined  to  particular  rock  formations ;  they  are  found 
overlying  all  formations, — they  are  so  independent  of  the 
rock  beneath,  that  they  invariably  contain  similar  elements. 
Though  it  may  seem  premature  to  place  before  all  who  may 
read  this  work  the  results  of  analysis,  before  they  have 
become  familiar  with  chemical  names ;  yet  those  here  used 
are  so  common,  that  the  proof  adduced  may  not  be  misun- 
derstood. 

The  analysis  of  the  ashes  of  plants  grown  on  different 
geological  formations,  in  soil  which  is  stated  to  have  pro- 
ceeded from  the  decomposition  of  the  underlying  rock, 
proves  how  little  dependent  is  the  plant  on  the  chemical  con- 
stitution of  the  soil.  The  ashes  of  the  grape-vine,  grown  on 
four  different  soils,  afforded, 


Potash,     .... 

i. 
.  34.13 

ii. 
24.93 

MI. 
2G.41 

nr. 

37.482 

Soda,     

.    7.59 

7.00 

8.57 

1.336 

Common  salt,     .     . 

.    0.83 
.  30.28 

0.58 
3594 

0.41 
31.78 

1.614 
34.344 

Magnesia,  .... 

.    4.66 

7.12 

9.16 

1.055 

Pho«nhate  of  lime.  . 

15.694 

Sulphate  of  lime,     .     .     4.55  4.02  4.13  6.186 

Peroxide  of  iron,     .     .    0.16  0.24  0.19  1.564 

Phosphoric  acid,     .     .  16.35  19.55  16.87 

Silica, 1.45  O.G2  2.48  0.725 


GEOLOGY   OF   SOIL.  23 

In  No.  4,  all  the  phosphoric  acid  is  included  in  the  phos- 
phate of  lime,  and  iron.  This  analysis  is  by  Crasso,  the 
others  by  Hruschauer. 

No.  1  was  grown  on  soil  formed  from  the  debris  of 
quartzose  rocks,  by  the  decomposition  of  gneiss,  mica-schist, 
clay-slate,  chlorite,  hornblende,  quartz,  and  a  little  lime. 

No.  2,  from  soil  formed  of  decomposed  limestone,  variety 
called  transition. 

No.  3,  from  soil  formed  of  decomposed  mica-slate. 

No.  4,     "       "         "        "  "  porphyry. 

It  is  evident,  that  where  the  soil  has  not  proceeded  from 
geological  drift,  as  in  No.  1,  widely  different  geological 
formations  afford  all  the  mineral  elements  of  plants. 

22.  The  plants  used  for  food  are  cultivated  on   every 
variety  of  rock  foundation  w  hicli  the  earth  presents.     Their 
cultivation  is  limited  neither  by  granitic  nor  trappean,  by 
fossiliferous  or  non-fossiliferous  rocks.     Their  product  varies 
not  more  on  different  than  on  the  same  geological  formation. 
Everywhere,  over  every  variety  of  rock,  the  cultivation  of 
the  food-bearing  plants  repays  the  labor  of  the  farmer. 

23.  Surveying  Massachusetts,  it  is  evident  the  grain  crops 
are  not  influenced  by  the   peculiar  rock  formations   over 
which  they  are  grown ;  for  in  this  State,  with  the  exception 
of  modern  volcanic  rocks,  all  the  various  formations  which 
the  earth  presents  are  found.      Yet   no   difference   in   the 
quality  and  quantity  of  crops  of  rye,  oats,  barley,  wheat, 
Indian  corn,  is  found,  which  can  be  attributed  to  different 
geological  tracts. 

24.  All  plants  have  a  natural  limit,  a  peculiar  region,  in 
which,  unaided  by  the  human  race,  they  flourish  and  spread 
spontaneously.     The  smaller  the  limit  of  this  natural  boun- 
dary, the  more  difficult  is  the  cultivation  of  the  plant,  yet  we 
find  that  the  natural  boundary  is  passed,  and  so  plants  come 


24  GEOLOGY   OF   SOIL. 

to  live  in  an  artificial  region.  There  is  a  natural,  and  there 
is  an  artificial  "habitat  "or  region;  and  this  last  is  either 
horticultural,  or  agricultural.  The  first  is  unlimited,  the 
second  is  limited  by  the  great  external  circumstances  of 
temperature  and  moisture. 

25.  The    extreme  north    and  south  limits,  which  bound 
the  cultivation  of  the  food-bearing  plants,  are  determined 
wholly  by  physical,  physiological,  and  social  causes.     Tem- 
perature   is  the  great  agent  which  limits  the  agricultural 
u  habitat "  of  the  grain-bearing  plants. 

26.  The  distribution  of  plants  is  governed  by  the  two  fol- 
lowing laws : 

1st.  The  polar  agricultural  limits  are  bounded  by  lines 
passing  through  places  of  equal  summer  heat. 

2d.  The  equatorial  limits,  by  lines  of  equal  winter  heat. 

These  lines  are  called  respectively,  isotheral,  and  isochi- 
menal.  They  by  no  means  coincide.  They  often  cut  each 
other  at  right  angles,  and  generally,  from  about  the  45th 
degree  north  latitude,  they  are  parallel  neither  to  one 
another,  nor  to  the  latitude.  They  are  often  highly  curved. 

And  now  for  the  proof  of  these  general  laws.  Beginning 
with  barley,  the  .grain  which  has  been  cultivated  the  farthest 
north,  its  fields  are  found  in  the  extremity  of  Scotland,  in 
the  Orkneys  and  Shetland  Isles,  61  degrees  N. ;  in  the 
Faroe  Islands,  between  61  and  62£  degrees  N. ;  in  Western 
Lapland,  near  North  Cape,  in  latitude  of  70  degrees  ;  on  the 
borders  of  the  White  Sea,  in  Western  llussia,  between  07 
and  68  degrees,  and  near  to  Archangel,  in  Eastern  Russia, 
about  66  degrees ;  in  Central  Siberia,  the  limit  of  barley  is 
between  58  and  59  degrees  N.  There  are  no  extt'iidnl 
observations  of  the  temperature  of  the  northern  portions  of 
our  own  continent,  and  therefore  the  limit  of  barley  in 
Northern  America  is  left  undefined.  But  its  European  lino 


GEOLOGY   OF  SOIL.  25 

will  probably  define  that  which  will  limit  grain  cultivation 
in  America. 

Tracing  a  line  through  the  points  above  named,  it  is  the 
northern  boundary  of  all  the  cereals,  or  grains.  A  little 
beyond  this  line  is  the  boundary  of  the  potato,  and  the  belt 
between  the  two  is  remarkable.  It  is  the  zone  between 
agriculture,  and  fishing,  and  hunting  ;  between  races  of  men, 
subsisting  on  animal  and  on  vegetable  diet,  and  those  whose 
chief  food  is  animal.  The  northern  cultivation  of  barley  is 
bounded,  if  its  course  be  traced,  by  a  very  curved  line.  Is 
this  determined  by  geological  causes,  or  do  causes  purely 
physical  erect  a  barrier  to  its  further  northward  advance  ? 
The  answer  will  be  found  in  tracing  the  temperature  of  the 
seasons  of  the  different  places,  through  which  the  limit  of  the 
northern  cultivation  of  barley  passes.  It  will  be  evident 
that  the  line  of  this  limit  is  isotheral,  for  the  mean  tempera- 
ture, Fahrenheit,  is  as  follows: 


Latitude.        Year 


Faroe  Isles,      .     .     .     61°— 62°:  +45° 
W.  Lapland,     ...     70°  -j-33°8 

Russia,  at  the  mouth  of 

the  White  Sea,  .    66°— G8°  +32° 


Temperature  of  the 
Winter, 
h  39° 


-f  21°2 


10°2—  8°8 


Summer. 

4-51° 
+46°2 

+4G°3 


Casting  the  eye  on  this  table,  it  is  evident  that  the  annual 
and  the  winter  temperature  have  little  influence  on  the  barley 
limit,  and  that  a  mean  summer  temperature  from  46°  to  47° 
is  the  only  indispensable  physical  condition  to  the  cultivation 
of  barley.  On  the  Atlantic  islands,  a  mean  temperature 
from  3  to  4  degrees  higher  is  necessary,  which  compensates 
for  excessive  humidity.  It  is  remarkable,  that  all  the  cereals 
have  failed  in  Iceland,  though  its  mean  temperature  is  above 
that  necessary  for  barley.  Nor  is  this  owing  to  its  geologi- 
cal structure.  In  that  it  agrees  with  the  fertile  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean.  It  is  volcanic.  So  far  as  nitrogen,  car- 
2 


26  GEOLOGY   OF  SOIL. 

bonic  acid,  and  ammonia,  may  be  supposed  to  be  evolved 
from  the  earth,  and  to  contribute  to  the  growth  of  grain, 
Iceland  should  equal  fertile  Italy.  But  such  is  not  the  fact, 
and  it  goes  to  prove  that  rocks  affect  very  little  the  crops 
grown  over  them,  even  when  the  great  physical  element, 
temperature,  is  as  high  as  is  necessary.  That  grains  fail  in 
Iceland,  is  due  to  the  excessively  tempestuoois  rains  with 
which  that  country  is  visited.  If  then  the  limit  of  barley  is 
defined  by  an  isotheral  line  of  46£  degrees  in  Europe,  that 
will  also  limit  its  cultivation  in  America.  So  far  as  obser- 
vation has  extended,  this  is  true,  and  the  line  of  boundary  is 
equally  curved,  and  winding.  If  a  similar  table  for  the  limit 
of  wheat  is  constructed,  by  drawing  a  line  through  the  most 
northern  places,  where  this  grain  has  been  cultivated,  the 
physical  conditions  essential  to  its  cultivation  will  be  found 
as  follows: 


Latitude. 


Mean  Temperature.  Fahrenheit,  of  the 


Scotland,  (Inverness)  68° 

Norway,  (Drontheim)  64° 

Sweden, 62° 

St.  Petersburgh,    .     .  C0°2o 


Year.  sumi 

-j-46°3  1  +57°3 
4-59° 
-(-59° 
-H>0°8 


-39°5 
4-38° 


Winter. 
-j-36°5 

+23°5 
4-23°5 
4-lo°6 


North  latitude  64  degrees  appears,  then,  to  be  the  utmost 
limit  of  wheat.  It  is  evident  by  inspection,  that  this  is  not 
determined  by  the  cold  of  winter ;  for  spring  wheat  would 
not  be  affected  by  it ;  and  even  if  sown  in  autumn,  in  these 
far  northern  regions,  the  seeds  would  be  effectually  pre- 
served from  the  rigors  of  winter,  by  that  thick  mantle  of 
snow  which  becomes  thicker  and  more  lasting  towards  the 
north.  The  temperature  of  the  nir  exerts  no  influence  on 
seeds  of  plants  buried  under  snow.  Nor  does  the  mean 
temperature  of  the  year  exert  any  effect ;  it  is  seen  ranging 
9  degrees,  while  the  summer  temperature  varies  only  &£ 
degrees.  The  summer  temperature  alone  defines  the  limit 


GEOLOGY  OF  SOIL.  27 

of  northern  wheat  cultivation,  and  this  is  an  isotheral  line 
of  57.4  degrees.  Yet  it  is  found  that  there  are  places 
where,  as  in  Russia,  the  mean  of  spring  and  autumn,  both 
depending  on  that  of  winter  in  pai't,  are  too  low  to  allow 
wheat  to  be  raised  under  this  line  of  57.4  degrees.  In 
truth,  the  relation  of  climate  to  cultivation  cannot  be  accu- 
rately determined  without  observations  on  the  mean  tem- 
perature of  the  days  which  elapse  between  sowing  and 
harvest,  and  to  this  point  the  philosophic  farmer  should 
direct  his  attention.  In  our  country,  the  isotheral  line  of 
57.4  degrees,  starting  from  Labrador,  51  degrees,  and  pass- 
ing between  Hudson's  Bay  and  Lakes  Superior  and  Huron, 
50  degrees,  then  turns  north  and  approaches  58  degrees.  At 
Cumberland  House,  54  degrees  north,  Capt.  Franklin 
found  fields  of  barley,  wheat,  Indian  corn.  When  the  line 
approaches  the  Pacific  Ocean,  it  turns  more  southerly  to 
compensate  the  increasing  humidity.  As  the  limits  of  barley 
mark  the  boundary  between  the  races  of  shepherds  and 
hunters  and  fishers,  and  thus  presents  itself  in  a  moral 
view,  so  the  limit  of  wheat  becomes  interesting,  from  coin- 
ciding in  some  parts  with  that  of  fruit  trees,  as  apples  and 
pears,  and  also  with  that  of  the  oak.  The  whole  aspect,  not 
only  of  agriculture,  but  also  of  the  orchard  and  forest, 
changes  at  once  on  approaching  the  isotheral  line  of  57.4 
degrees,  the  northern  limit  of  wheat.  It  would  be  easy  to 
extend  these  remarks  to  rye,  still  the  staple  food  of  a  large 
part  of  the  population  of  Europe,  and  to  oats,  little  used  for 
food  for  man  out  of  the  "land  o'  caken,"  yet  growing  in 
Norway,  as  high  as  latitude  65  degrees.  Each  of  these 
grains  has  a  distinct  isotheral  line  parallel  to  that  of  wheat 
and  barley.  Indian  corn  and  the  potato  have  each  its 
isotheral  line.  Turning  to  the  equatorial  limits  of  the  grains 
it  will  be  found,  that  extreme  heat  arrests  their  cultivation. 


28  GEOLOGY   OF  SOIL. 

Observations  in  these  regions,  and  experiments  performed 
by  profound  vegetable  physiologists,  confirm  this  statement. 
They  have  proved  that  the  seeds  of  the  food-bearing  plants, 
even  after  germination  has  begun,  can  support  greater  de- 
grees of  drought  and  heat,  than  ever  occur  in  the  hottest 
climates.  The  grains  all  germinate  in  the  soil  of  a  temper- 
ature from  104  to  105  degrees,  and  require  at  least  from 
116  to  120  degrees  to  arrest  this  process.  Barley  ceases  to 
germinate  at  the  lowest  temperature.  After  barley,  follows 
wheat,  then  rye.  Indian  corn  endures  the  highest  heat,  viz., 
120  degrees,  before  its  germination  is  arrested.  The  grains 
flourish  under  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  from  77  to  80£ 
degrees.  Defining  their  equatorial  limits,  they  are  bounded 
not  by  lines  of  equal  summer,  but  equal  winter  tempera- 
ture ;  the  reverse  of  their  polar  limits.  Hence,  climate 
always  determines  the  sowing  season.  In  Bengal,  wheat, 
barley,  oats,  are  sown  in  October,  and  harvested  in  March 
and  April,  while  rice  and  maize  are  sown  in  May,  to  be  har- 
vested in  October.  It  is  this  line  of  equal  winter  tempera- 
ture, or  rather  that  of  the  coolest  months,  which  allows  the 
grains  to  be  cultivated  in  many  places  within  the  torrid  zone, 
and  the  line  of  68  to  70  degrees  Fab.,  which  constitutes  the 
tropical  limit  of  wheat  culture,  varies  between  20  and  23 
degrees  of  latitude.  The  other  grains  enduring  from  5  to  7 
degrees  lower  temperature,  are  found  in  higher  latitudes. 

27.  The  wide  belt  of  our  globe,  comprised  within  these 
limits,  extending  from  20  to  70  degrees  north  latitude,  pre- 
sents every  variety  of  geological  structure ;  yet  nowhere, 
in  all  this  space,  is  the  quantity  or  quality  of  crops  affected 
by  the  chemical  nature  of  the  underlying  rocks. 

28.  A  similar  principle  governs  the  growth  and  cultiva- 
tion of  the  grain-bearing  plants  on  mountains.     Their  limits 
are  found  at  heights  which  correspond  to  the  latitude  which 


GEOLOGY   OF   SOIL.  29 

marks  the  isotheral  line.     In  the  Swiss  Alps,   the   grains 

cease  growing  at  the  following  heights  : 

Wheat  at  3400  feet,  corresponding  to  lat.  64  degrees. 
Oats      "  3500     "  "  "       65 

Rye       "  4600     "  "  "       67        " 

Barley  "  4800     "  "  "       70        " 

This  shows  a  beautiful  correspondence  between  latitude 

and  altitude,  and  leads  a  step  farther  in  the  proof  of  this 

principle,  that  rocks  do  not  affect  the  vegetation  which  covers 

them. 

29.  The  space  which  has  thus  been  surveyed,  presents, 
amid  great  variety  of  rocks,  a  singular  similarity  in  chem- 
ical composition  of  the  soil.     These  facts  lead  to  the  third 
principle  of  agricultural  chemistry,  ROCKS  HAVE  NOT  FORMED 

THE   SOIL  WHICH  IMMEDIATELY  COVERS  THEM. 

30.  Everywhere,  with  the  exception  of  the  tops  of  some 
mountains,  the  rocks  of  the  globe  are  covered,  from  a  few 
inches,  to  some  hundred  feet  in  depth,  with  gravel,  sand, 
clay,  rolled  stones,  sometimes  alternately  with  each  other, 
sometimes  in  confused  heaps.     The  best  attested  and  most 
universally   admitted   fact   of  geology,    is,   that   the   loose 
materials  of  our  globe  have  been  transported,  from  a  few,  to 
many  hundred  miles  from  their  original  situation.     With  a 
few  exceptions,  the  soil,  which  now  covers  rocks,  has  been 
derived  from  places  distant,  and  from  rocks  distinct,  from 
those  on  which  it  now  reposes.     This  is  peculiarly  true  of 
soil  on  limestone  districts,  which  does  not  contain  more  lime 
than  the  soil  reposing  on  granite. 

31.  Transportation  of  soil  is  a  fact  so  well  established, 
that  it  needs  only  to  be  mentioned.     There  has  been  a  uni- 
versal mingling  of  the   loose  material,   soil,  derived  from 
worn-down  and  mingled  rocks. 

32.  The  same  uniformity  of  chemical  composition  charac- 


80  GEOLOGY  OF  SOIL. 

terizes  soil,  which  characterized  rocks  ;  that  is,  great  similar- 
ity, but  not  identity,  and  it  is  on  limited  patches  only,  that 
soil  partakes  decidedly  of  the  character  of  the  underlying 
rocks. 

33.  The  extensive  analyses  of  soil,  executed  by  the  geo- 
logical surveyor  of  Massachusetts,  taken  from  every  variety 
of  rock  formation,  present  a  remarkable  uniformity,  both  of 
chemical  constitution,  and  mineralogical  composition  of  the 
earthy  ingredients.  In  one  hundred  and  forty-six  soils  of 
Massachusetts,  the  combinations  of  lime,  clay,  iron,  &c., 
estimated  as  in  the  state  of  bone-dust,  are  per  100 

parts, 0.859 

Similar  matters  in  the  state  of  plaster  are  per  100 

parts 1.823 

The  surveyor  suggests  the  subtraction  of  ^  from  the  amount 
representing  matters  allied  to  bone-dust,  to  reduce  that  to 
pure  bone-earth.  A  less  amount  should  be  allowed  in 
the  matters  allied  to  plaster.  If  31  per  cent,  be  deducted 
from  the  sum  of  the  plaster  and  bone-dust,  the  result  is 
1.851. 

Lime,  in  the  state  of  marble  or  limestone,  was  found  in 
fourteen  of  one  hundred  and  forty-six  soils.  Except  in 
limestone  regions,  the  natural  existence  of  lime  in  the  state 
of  marble  or  chalk  in  soil  is  very  questionable.  Adding  its 
average  amount  as  found  in  the  soil  of  Massachusetts,  viz., 
0.916,  the  result  is, — lime  in  various  forms, — 2.047,  fine 
earthy  matter  insoluble  in  weak  acids,  89.305.  What  is 
true  of  the  soil  of  Massachutetts  is  true  of  all  soil — great 
similarity  of  its  mineral  constituents,  both  in  kind  and  pro- 
portion. This  is  the  truth,  deducible  from  the  average  re- 
sults of  analyses  of  soil  from  various  parts  of  the  world. 
But  it  may  be  said  that  the  above  numbers  have  been 
deduced  from  the  results  of  the  examination  of  a  very  lira- 


GEOLOGY   OF  SOIL.  31 

ited  portion  of  our  country;  that  the  analyses  have  been 
conducted  by  a  new  process ;  that  the  soil  examined  rests 
chiefly  on  granitic  rocks,  and  has  been  thence  derived.  Had 
the  field  been  wider,  or  the  process  different,  the  results 
would  have  been  different. 

All  analysts,  from  the  earliest  times,  have  found  a  very 
large  per  centage  of  soil  insoluble  in  acid  or  alkali.  The 
object  of  chemists  has  been,  by  the  aid  of  water  and  weak 
acids,  by  the  gentlest  means  to  separate  the  elements 
of  soil.  Others  have  used  fiercer  means,  and  have  attacked 
the  insoluble  portion  of  soil,  by  means  common  to  the 
analysis  of  intractable  stones,  by  fusion  with  alkali,  followed 
by  treatment  with  acid.  By  either  mode  the  mineral  part 
of  soil  is  separated  into  two  general  divisions,  into  soluble 
and  insoluble  portions. 

This  is  to  be  observed  of  all  soil  analyses,  by  whomsoever 
or  howsoever  made,  that  while  all  are  imperfect  approxima- 
tions only,  to  truth,  yet  the  insoluble  ingredients  are  the 
substances  which  from  their  chemical  constitution  are  least 
affected  by  the  various  modifications  to  which  soil  analyses 
have  been  subjected.  Whatever  modes  may  have  been 
used,  in  all,  the  insoluble  substances  make  up  the  great  bulk 
of  soil  presented  in  the  per  centage  result,  as,  "silica, 
silicious  residuum,  sand  and  clay,  insoluble  mineral  matter, 
fine,  earthy  matter,  sandy  residuum." 

In  the  analytical  results,  alumina,  or  clay,  oxide  of  iron, 
or  iron  rust,  and  magnesia,  are  frequently  stated  in  separate 
amounts.  These  substances  have  been  educed  by  analysis 
from  their  combinations,  yet  are  they  for  the  most  part  a 
portion  of  the  insoluble  compounds  variously  designated 
above,  and  should  be  included  in  that  class.  The  "  alumin- 
ous residuum,"  or  clay,  is  certainly  an  earthy  compound 
only. 


82  GEOLOGY   OF  SOIL. 

Lime  generally  ex<sts  in  the  state  of  plaster,  or  bone-dust, 
or  sometimes  as  limestone.  In  truly  calcareous  or  limy  soil, 
lime  may  form  several  per  cents.  But  such  soils  are  the 
exception,  not  the  rule,  of  the  earth's  covering.  It  is  soil, 
in  its  universal  features,  to  which  attention  is  here  directed. 
Lime  has  been  very  often,  perhaps  generally,  separated  from 
its  earthy  combinations,  and  has  been  separately  stated  as 
carbonate  of  lime  in  soil ;  as  such  it  has  been  too  often  a 
product,  not  an  educt  of  analysis. 

So,  too,  of  potash  and  soda,  when  these  exist  in  other 
forms  than  as  common  salts,  they  are  usually  in  soil  in  com- 
bination with  its  vegetable  matter,  and  are  to  be  considered 
with  that  element. 

These  considerations  authorize  the  inclusion  of  clay,  iron 
and  magnesia  in  the  insoluble  division  of  soil,  while  the 
bone-dust  and  plaster  naturally  existing  and  soluble  by  the 
aid  of  natural  water,  or  more  easily  by  rain  water,  are  to  be 
included  in  the  soluble  portion. 

Bearing  this  division  in  mind,  let  the  examination  of  soil 
be  extended  to  other  districts  of  our  country,  where  the  soil 
resting  on  an  immense  field  of  limestone,  underlaid  by  the 
rocks  which  were  referred  to  (16)  as  fossiliferous,  has  been 
examined  by  the  process  applied  to  Massachusetts  soils — yet 
with  such  modification  as  to  procure  a  portion  of  clay,  iron 
and  magnesia  separately  from  the  insoluble  substances. 

Fifteen  soils,  from  Wisconsin  and  Iowa,  gave  per  100 
parts — 

Insoluble  in  weak  acid, 82.500 

Clay,  iron,  magnesia, 5.600 

Adding  these,  the  sum  is 88.100 

Lime  in  various  forms  of  limestone  and  plaster,        1.860 
The  soil  of  these  immense  regions  shows  not  so  intimate 


GEOLOGY   OF   SOIL.  33 

a  relation  to  the  underlying  rock  as  do  the  soils  of  New 
England.  These  western  soils  are  convincing  proof  of  the 
third  principle  (29). 

But  the  same  proof  of  the  independence  of  soil  and  of  its 
uniform  composition,  is  afforded  by  the  results  of  the  exam- 
ination of  the  continental  European  soils.  Forty-eight  soils, 
from  Germany,  Holland,  Belgium,  Hungary,  Bohemia,  by  a 
process  very  different  from  either  of  those  which  had  been 
used  in  the  analyses  above  stated,  by  an  acute  and  intricate 
mode  of  operation  afforded 

Insoluble, .     87.053 

Soluble  clay,  iron,  magnesia,         .         .         .  5.853 


92.906 

Lime  in  various  forms, — as  plaster,  bone-dust,  lime- 
stone,         1.860 

Taking  these  several  results,  we  have 

Soils.  Insoluble.  Forms  of  lime. 

146  Massachusetts,  .  .  89.305  .  .  2.04T 
15  Wisconsin  and  Iowa.  .  88.100  .  .  1.860 
48  European,  .  .  .  92.906  .  .  1.860 


209  3)270.311  3)5.767 


Mean,       ....        90.103  1.922 

Excluding  that  form  of  lime  whose  existence  as  limestone 
naturally  in  Massachusetts  soil  is  very  questionable,  the  lime 
in  her  soil  would  be  represented  by  1.851.  The  average  of 
the  forms  of  lime  would  then  be  in  the  above  209  soils, 
1.857,  which  is  only  0.006  more  than  that  of  Massachusetts, 
while  the  insoluble  portion  of  her  soil  is  actually  very  near 
the  mean  of  the  whole. 

But  if  the  comparison  is  to  be  made  with  other  soils,  the 
2* 


34  GEOLOGY   OF  SOIL. 

limestone  is  to  bo  retained.  Other  soils  have  this  element 
included  in  the  result  of  their  analyses;  and  it  is  with  the 
like  exceptions,  as  liable  to  be  there  misplaced  as  in  the  soils 
of  Massachusetts.  Retaining,  therefore,  all  the  lime,  a  still 
wider  examination  will  show  the  great  uniformity  in  chem- 
ical composition  of  all  soil. 

The  results  may  be  tabulated  as  follows,  dividing,  as  has 
been  explained,  all  soil  into  insoluble,  soluble,  and  forms  of 
lime.  The  soluble  includes  clay,  iron,  magnesia,  the  forms 
of  lime,  plaster,  bone-dust  and  limestone. 


OF  SOIL. 


35 


I  No.    of  Soii 
,  £5  gg|   Examined. 


|1       I 

ii  1 


jF 

"  • 


5T<$  Z»S.. 


sag* 

£•5! 


a        .     -  a. 
5.  .    =f  •    3  « 

H       S       •    2. 


—  *-GOOOOOO 


Ili 


Insoluble 
Soil. 


^  to        to 

OO        CO 


Soluble  Soil. 


ooSooo 


^  OOOQOQO1-*-.TOO*l--* 
*"*  iOcOtOOCiOSO-^cD-^ 
1-5  O  H-I  G  9  O'G  O  1C  **•  O 


Lime  in  form 
of  bone-dust, 
plaster,chalk 
or  cartonate 


(i**OC 

- 


»    00  T3   -T 


2;5§ 

$ 

B-'f 

^     ' 


36 


GKOLOQY   OF  SOI* 


The  whole  number  of  soils  comprised  in  the'  above  table 
is  413. 


Insoluble 

Soluble. 

Salt*  of  lime. 

Deducting  the  146  soils  of  Massachusetts,  1      _.  ... 
the  remaining  267  give  an  average  of  j 
By  adding  the  soluble  and  insoluble,  the  ) 
result  w  ;     87  33? 

15.604 

2076 

while  146  Massachusetts  soils  contain          89.30° 

2.047 

The  sum  of  the  whole  413,    .        .        .        176.642 

4.122 

And  the  average  is       .        .       .      .  .    ••    88.321 

.« 

2.001 

This  examination  proves  that  the  146  soils  of  Massachusetts 
represent  very  fairly  the  average  mineral  composition  of  the 
soil  of  the  globe. 

The  results  of  chemical  analysis  stated  per  cent,  to  two  or 
three  places  of  decimals,  give  the  farmer  no  idea  of  the 
quantity  of  any  element  in  an  acre,  at  the  usual  depth  of 
cultivation.     A  simple  rule  will  make  this  amount  evident. 
The  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  dried  soil  is  as  follows : 
Silicious  sand,         .         .         .         .         111.3  pounds. 
Calcareous  sand,         ....     113.6       " 

Sandy  clay, 97.8      " 

Loamy  clay, 88.5      " 

Stiff  clay, 80.3       " 

Slaty  marl, 112.         " 

Fertile  mould,        ...         .         .          68.7       " 
Common  arable  soil,  ....       84.5       u 
The  average  is  94.58,  which  in  the  ordinary  wet  state  be- 
comes 126.6.     Multiply  43560  by  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot 
of  soil,  and  divide  the  product  by  12,  the  quotient  is  the 
number  of  pounds  per  acre  at  one  inch  deep. 

Read  the  results  of  analyses  stated  in  100  parts,  deci- 
mally, as  whole  numbers,  and  consider  each  ingredient  as  so 
many  pounds  in  every  100,000  U>«.  of  soil. 

Multiply  any  ingredient  by  the  number  of  pounds  in  one 


GEOLOGY   OF  SOIL.  87 

inch  deep,  and  cut  off  the  five  right-hand  figures ;  the 
remainder  is  the  number  of  pounds  of  that  ingredient  per 
acre,  at  one  inch  deep. 

Let  it  be  required  to  know  how  many  pounds  of  salts  of 
lime  are  contained  in  eight  inches  deep  of  a  soil  which 
weighs  126.6  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  and  contains  2.047  of 
salts  of  lime  in  100  parts. 

43560  X  126.6  =  5514696  pounds  per  acre  one  foot  deep. 
5514696  -f-  12  =  459558  pounds         "      "    one  inch  deep. 

459558  X  2.047  =  940776636. 

Cutting  off  five  figures,  leaves  9407  pounds  at  one  inch  deep. 
8 

75256      "        at  eight  inches  deep. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that  this  immense  quantity  is  that 
contained  only  in  the  finer  portions  of  the  soil ;  there  yet 
remain  about  eighty  parts  in  every  hundred  of  soil  as  unde- 
composed  silicates,  ready  to  yield  their  lime  to  the  wants  of 
agriculture. 

Tried  by  the  above  rule,  the  smallest  quantities  which  the 
chemist  obtains  in  his  analysis  become  tons  per  acre,  and 
that  which  is  too  small  to  be  weighed  by  any  balance,  the 
"  trace  "  only  of  an  element  rises  to  an  amount  which  aston- 
ishes by  its  magnitude. 


/  ••*'*"  "^VN. 

/-  V  ,  o-\ 

VT   wawr--.caio  Ctrc-ct,  ^J 


CHAPTER   II. 

CHEMICAL    CONSTITUTION    OF   ROCKS,    AND   SOIL. 

34.  THE  geologist,  the   mineralogist,  the   chemist,  each 
views  rocks  with  a  different  eye.     The  geologist  regards 
the  rocky  mass ;  the  mineralogist,  the  simple  minerals  com- 
posing the  rock ;  the  chemist,  the  simple  elements  which 
compose  the  minerals. 

35.  Elements  are  substances  which  have  not  as  yet  been 
proved  to  be  compound,  as  oxygen  and  hydrogen  among  the 
gases,  or  iron  or  lead  among  metals.     Minerals  are  called 
simple  which  have  certain  definite,  external,  physical  char- 
acters, though  they  may  be  composed  of  several  elements. 
Rocks  are  called  compound,  which  consist  of  several  simple 
minerals,  as  granite,  which  consists  of  quartz,  felspar,  and 
mica. 

36.  The  only  point  of  view  which  the  farmer  takes,  is 
that  of  the  chemist ;  his  pole-star  is  "  fruit  and  progress  ;" 
and  his  philosophy,  guided  by  this,  teaches  the  nature  and 
mode  of  action  of  the  several  elements  of  minerals.     With- 
out a  knowledge  of  the  chemical  constitution  of  minerals, 
the  science  which  classifies  and  labels  these  is  useless.     The 
mineralogist  merely  names  his  mineral,  labels  it,  and  places 
it  in  his  cabinet ;  yet  a  farmer  must  know  a  few  of  these 
names,  and  talk  to  the  mineralogist  in  terms  which  he  can 
understand.     He  must  give  to  the  assemblage  of  elements 
which  composes  a  mineral,  that  name  which  the  mineralo- 

(38 


CHEMISTRY   OF   SOIL.  39 

gist  bestows  on  the  assemblage  of  external  characters,  which 
determines  the  species. 

37.  The  mineralogy  of  agriculture  is  no  more  than  this, 
that  the  farmer  be  able  ever  to  connect  with  a  certain  name 
a  certain  chemical  composition.     Hearing  mica  (which  is 
isinglass)    named,  he  immediately  connects  with  that,  the 
chemical  properties  which  belong  to  the  species,  as  he  would 
connect  with  the  term  isinglass,  the  physical  properties  of 
that  substance ;  such  as  transparency,  divisibility  into  thin 
plates,  which  are  flexible  and  elastic. 

38.  The  amount  of  this  mineralogical  knowledge  is  very 
limited.     Seven  simple  minerals  compose  all  rocks,  viz. : 
quartz,  mica,  felspar,  hornblende,  talc,  serpentine,  carbonate 
of  lime.     Other  minerals  are  found  in  rocks,  but  these  seven 
compose  all  those  termed  geological  formations,  and  which 
form  the  crust  of  the  globe. 

39.  The  chemical  constitution  of  rocks,  the  nature,  prop- 
erties and  relations  of  their  elements,  prove  to  be  of  the 
highest  value,  when  it  is  known  that  the  elements  of  these 
seven  minerals   are  also  the   earthy  part  or  ashes   of  all 
plants.     The  farmer  should  therefore  be  so  far  a  chemist  as 
to  understand  the  results  to  which  the  analysis  of  minerals 
conducts. 

40.  The  number  of  elements  which  chemistry  has  detected 
is  sixty-two ;  probably  sixty-three.     All  are  either  metallic 
or  unmetallic.     Of  these  some  are  gaseous,  others  earthy, 
others  combustible.     The  last  are  also  called  metalloids,  by 
which  term  they  are  designated  in  these  pages. 

Of  the  simple  or  elementary  bodies,  thirteen  chiefly 
compose  all  rocks,  and  the  mineral  portion  of  soil.  Six  of 
this  number  are  unmetallic  and  seven  are  metallic  sub- 
stances. 


40  CHEMISTRY  OF    SOIL. 

The  oomeUllic  are:  Hie  metallic  are: 

1.  Potassium. 


1.  Oxygen, 

2.  Hydrogen. 

3.  Silicon. 

4.  Carbon. 

5.  Sulphur. 

6.  Phosphorus. 


2.  Sodium. 

3.  Calcium. 

4.  Magnesium. 

5.  Aluminium. 

6.  Ferrum. 


7.  Manganesium. 

Restricting  the  term  metalloids  to  the  3d,  4th,  5th  and 
6th  unmetallic  substances  in  the  above  list,  the  other  two 
stand  out  distinctly,  separated  by  their  want  of  properties 
common  to  the  remainder.  They  stand  each  alone,  being 
wholly  unlike  each  other.  These  are  oxygen  and  hydrogen, 
known  in  their  uncombined  or  free  state  only  as  gases,  whose 
union  produces  water.  It  is  as  a  part  of  water  that  hydrogen 
enters  into  the  composition  of  rocks.  It  is  comparatively  of 
little  importance. 

Not  so  with  oxygen.  No  other  known  substance  has  such 
a  wide  range  of  affinities.  Its  combinations  produce  a 
change  of  properties  in  the  several  elements  above  enumer- 
ated, whose  names  end  in  um,  by  which  these  are  converted 
into  substances  whose  common  name  reveals  their  well- 
known  characters. 

41.  With  the  metalloids,  oxygen  forms  acids,  and  with 
the  metals,  oxides  or  earths,  rarely  acids. 
OXYGEN, 


with  silicon 
"  carbon 

"    sulphur 
"    phosphor  at 

forms  silicic        acid 
41    carbonic     •' 

"    sulphuric    " 
"    phosphoric  u 

w. 

h  potassium    forms  potash. 
sodium              "     soda, 
calcium           "     lime, 
magnesium     "     magnesia. 
aluminium       "     alumina,     or     clay 
earth, 
ferrum             ••      iron  oxyde  or  runt  . 
manganesiam  "     manganese  oxide. 

42.  The  oxides  or  earths  are  termed  bases.  Potash,  sodn, 
lime,  magnesia,  are  termed  alkaline  bases;  the  others, 
metallic  bases.  Acids  and  bases  unite  and  form  salts  in 


CHEMISTRY   OF   SOIL.  41 

rocks  or  soils.  Metalloids  also  unite  with  metals  and  form 
a  class  of  compounds  of  great  importance  in  agriculture. 
These  may  be  termed  metalloid  compounds  when  speaking 
of  such  agriculturally. 

43.  It   is   seen,    therefore,  that   the  elements  composing 
rocks  are  reduced  to  salts  and  metalloid  compounds. 

But  the  peculiar  character  of  the  salts  formed  by  silicic 
acid,  will  be  easier  understood  by  separating  these  from  the 
others,  and  studying  them  under  the  name  of  silicates. 
These  form  the  great  bulk  of  the  earth's  crust.  The  distin- 
guishing character  of  the  silicic  acid  salts  is  either  a  crystal- 
line appearance,  with  the  transparency  and  lustre  of  glass, 
united  to  the  hardness  of  flint,  or  opacity,  with  the  stony 
and  earthy  look  and  common  characters  of  mineral  sub- 
stances composing  rocks.  The  compounds  of  silicic  acid 
would  be  hardly  recognized  as  salts  in  the  common  and  pop- 
ular sense  of  that  term,  with  which  is  associated  the  ideas  of 
softness  and  solubility.  In  the  opinion  of  some  chemists  of 
the  highest  authority,  silicon,  or  silicium  as  they  term  it,  is  a 
metal.  Its  combination  with  oxygen  produces  an  acid. 
Hence,  perhaps,  its  salts  derive  their  peculiarity.  Silicic 
acid  is  a  metallic  acid,  which  forms  with  bases,  silicates ; 
these  are  generally  insoluble  in  water,  or  soluble  by  the  aid 
of  an  excess  of  alkali.  Carbonic,  sulphuric,  and  phosphoric 
acids  are  metalloid  acids,  which  form  with  bases,  salts,  in  the 
usual  sense  of  the  term.  Nor  is  silicium,  if  a  metal,  the 
only  one  of  the  class  which  acts  as  an  acid,  combined  with 
oxygen.  Alumina  acts  so  occasionally,  so  does  manganese, 
so  does  iron. 

44.  The  elements  of  water  being  included  in  silicates 
and  salts,  all  the  substances  which  compose  rocks  may  be 
divided  into  three  sections ;  a.  silicates,  b.  salts,,  c.  metalloid 
compounds. 


42  CHEMISTRY   OF  SOIL. 

45.  The  elements  which  compose  silicates  may  be  enumer- 
ated in  pairs,  as  a  help  to  the  memory — 

The  alkalies — potash  and  soda. 

"    alkaline  earths — lime  and  magnesia. 

'•  metallic  acids  or  earths — silex  and  alumina. 
2  alkalies,  2  alkaline  earths,  2  metallic  acids.  The  last  have 
all  the  characters  of  earths,  and  silica,  whose  acid  proper- 
ties were  first  noticed  by  Smithson,  was  and  is  still  called 
the  earth  of  flints,  while  alumina  is  known  as  the  earth  of 
clay. 

46.  The  terms,  salt,  silicate,  and  metalloid  compound  may 
need   a  further  explanation.      Pearlashes  and  vinegar  are 
well-known  substances.    One  is  an  alkali,  the  other  an  acid. 
I 'ear lash   has  the  alkaline  properties  of  a  bitter,  burning 
taste,  the  power  of  changing  vegetable  blues  to  green,  and 
pinks   to   blues.      Vinegar  has  the  acid  property   of  sour 
taste,  of  causing  a  hissing  or  effervescence,  when  poured  on 
pearlash.     This  action  ceasing,  there  are  neither  acid  taste 
nor  alkaline  properties.     The  characters  of  the  vinegar  and 
pearlash  have  disappeared.     These  substances  have  united  ; 
they  have  formed  a  new  substance  called  a   salt.     Their 
properties  are  neutralized,  and  lost  in  the  salt.     This  is  no 
longer  either  pearlash  or  vinegar. 

47.  The  fact  to  be  observed  in  the  action  (46)  is,  that  an 
acid  and  alkali  mutually  neutralize  each  other.     The  vinegar 
is  said,  in  this  case,  in  common  language,  to  "kill"   the 
pearlash.     So  soda,  potash,  lime,  magnesia,  iron,  and  man- 
ganese would  all  be  killed  or  neutralized  by  vinegar  ;  they 
would  all  be  dissolved  by  it,  and   lose  their  distinguishing 
characters.     In  either  case,  a  neutral  salt  would  be  formed. 
Such  a  class  of  salts  is  termed  acetates,  being  formed  of 
alkalies,  alkaline  earths,  or  metallic  oxides  united  with  acetic 
acid. 


CHEMISTRY   OF    SOIL.  43 

48.  Silex  or  silica,  or  the  earth  of  flints,  as  it  has  been 
called,  is  in  its  pure  state  a  perfectly  white,  insipid,  tasteless 
powder.     In  various  combinations  of  minerals,  it  unites  with 
the  bases  (41),  forming  neutral  salts,  termed  silicates,  from 
the  silicic  acid.     Thus  is  formed,  as  in  the  case  of  vinegar,  or 
acetic  acid  (47),  a  large  class  in  which  are  found  silicates  of 
soda,  of  potash,  of  lime,  of  magnesia,  of  alumina,  of  iron, 
and  of  manganese.     This  class  forms  the  great  bulk  of  all 
rocks  and  soil. 

49.  The  seven    substances  last  mentioned  (42)  are  all 
metals  united  to  oxygen.     They  are  metallic  oxides.     If  the 
oxygen  is  removed,  and  replaced  by  carbon,  sulphur,  phos- 
phorus or  silicon,  combinations  are  formed,  called  sulphur- 
ets,  carburets,  phosphurets,  siliciurets. 

50.  Metalloid  compounds  are  combinations  of  metalloids 
with  metals,  in  their  pui-e,  or  unoxidated  state. 

51.  Salts   are   combinations   of  metalloids  with  oxygen, 
and  the  metals  in  their  rusted  or  oxidated  state. 

52.  The  formation  of  carbonic,  sulphuric,  phosphoric  acids, 
has  been  explained  (41).     When  these  acids  unite  to  the 
bases,  salts  are  formed,  called  carbonates,  sulphates,  phos- 
phates. 

53.  Hence,  when  a  substance  is  named,  for  example,  sul- 
phate of  lime,  a  definite  idea  of  the  nature  of  this  is  con- 
veyed.    It  is,  on  the  principles  stated,  at  once  known  to  be 
a  salt,  that  is  a  sulphate,  that  is,  sulphur  and  oxygen  united 
to  lime.     So,  too,  phosphate  of  lime  is  seen  to  be  a  salt  of 
lime. 

54.  If  the  thirteen  elements  which  enter  into  the  compo- 
sition of  rocks,  had  each  an  equal  tendency  to  unite  with  the 
other ;  or,  in  other  words,  if  their  affinities  were  mutual, 
then  there  would  be  as  many  different  combinations  as  it 
would  be  possible  to  form  with  thirteen  different  substances. 


44  CHEMISTRY   OF   SOIL. 

If  these  combined  in  all  proportions,  then  the  possible  num- 
ber of  combinations  would  be  infinite. 

55.  This  can  never  be.  Affinity  is  not  equally  powerful. 
There  is  election  or  choice  among  the  particles  of  inanimate 
matter.  When  the  Creator  impressed  this  property  upon 
matter,  He  also  limited  its  combinations.  He  assigned  to 
each  element  power  to  combine  with  other  elements,  only  in 
fixed,  definite,  invariable  proportions.  He  gave  to  each  its 
form,  weight,  and  measure.  And  thus  were  limited  the 
number  of  combinations,  and  the  proportions  fixed,  in  which 
these  combinations  should  ever,  from  the  dawning,  to  the 
end  of  time,  occur.  The  Genius  of  modern  chemistry  has 
taught  that  all  bodies  combine  only  by  infinitely  small  par- 
ticles. Holding  her  balance  over  invisible  elements,  she  has 
taught  that  each  can  be  weighed. 

It  is  the  relative,  not  the  absolute  weight,  which  chemistry 
determines.  The  mode  may  be  thus  illustrated:  "Take  9 
Ibs.  of  water,  pass  its  steam  over  a  known  weight  of  pure 
iron  turnings,  heated  red  hot  in  an  earthen  tube.  No  steam 
escapes  from  the  tube,  only  air  which  may  be  inflamed  and 
burned.  It  is  hydrogen  gas,  one  of  the  constituents  of  water. 

That  liquid  has  been  decomposed.  What  has  become  of 
its  oxygen  ?  It  has  united  with,  and  oxidated  the  iron. 
What  proportion  of  the  9  Ibs.  of  water  did  it  form  ?  8-9ths. 
If  the  iron  is  weighed,  it  will  be  found  heavier  in  proportion 
of  8  Ibs.  for  every  9  Ibs.  of  water  evaporated  and  decom- 
posed. Whatever  is  the  proportion  of  water  used,  8-9ths 
are  oxygen.  Deducting  from  the  9  Ibs.  of  water,  8  oxygen, 
the  balance  1  is  hydrogen.  These  are  respectively  the 
weights  of  their  combining  proportions.  Chemical  theory 
supposes  combination  occurs,  only  by  the  ultimate,  indivisi- 
ble particles  or  atoms  of  matter.  Hence,  the  combining 
number  is  the  relative  weight  of  these  atoms,  referred  to 


CHEMISTRY    OF  SOIL.  45 

some  one  as  unity.  In  these  pages,  hydrogen  is  considered 
as  1,  or  unity.  As  the  atoms  may  be  thus  expressed  by 
numbers,  it  is  customary,  in  referring  to  chemical  compounds, 
to  speak  only  of  the  number  of  atoms,  in  which  each  ele- 
ment enters  into  their  composition.  The  modern  system  of 
chemical  notation,  substitutes  for  the  name  of  the  elements 
its  first,  or  two  first  letters,  and  writes  after  it  the  number 
of  atoms,  existing  in  any  compound,  as  the  powers  of  roots 
are  expressed  arithmetically  by  exponents.  Where  only 
single  atoms  combine,  their  exponents  are  omitted.  Thus, 
H  is  hydrogen,  O  is  oxygen ;  then  water  is  H  O,  that  is  one 
atom  each  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  C  is  carbon,  O 
oxygen  ;  then  C  O2  is  carbonic  acid,  that  is,  1  carbon  and 
two  of  oxygen.  The  combining  number  of  carbon  is  6,  and 
of  oxygen  8,  then  1  carbon  =  6,  and  2  oxygen  (8x2)  =  16. 
Then  the  atomic  number  of  carbonic  acid  is  22,  (6  -f  16  =  22. 
One  little  conversant  with  chemistry  is  apt  to  confound  the 
combining  number  with  the  number  of  atoms,  especially 
when  the  first  is  called  "  atomic  number."  A  distinction  is 
to  be  here  remembered,  the  atomic  number  is  one  thing,  the 
number  of  atoms  another.  When  it  is  said,  that  water  is 
composed  of  8  parts  of  oxygen  to  1  part  of  hydrogen,  by 
weight,  an  ultimate  fact  only  is  expressed.  When  it  is  said 
that  water  is  composed  of  an  atom  of  oxygen  united  to  an 
atom  of  hydrogen,  we  express  a  theoretical  opinion.  The 
difficulty  lies,  in  understanding  how  water  can  be  both  a 
combination  of  1  to  1,  and  of  1  to  8 ;  that  9  of  water  can 
yet  be  only  composed  of  1  to  1.  This  discrepancy  vanishes, 
where  the  distinction  is  remembered,  between  the  combining 
or  atomic  number,  and  the  number  of  atoms.  Water  is  an 
example,  where  single  atoms  are  united.  But  cases  contin- 
ually occur  where  the  combining  number  of  one  body  unites 
to  more  than  one  combining  proportion  of  another.  In  this 


46  CHEMISTRY   OF    SOIL. 

case,  as  the  atoms  are  indivisible,  combination  can  occur 
only,  by  twice,  thrice,  &c.,  the  quantity  of  that  of  the  first 
compound ;  for  instance,  1  carbon  may  be  combined  with  1 
oxygen,  forming  oxide  of  carbon,  or  with  2  of  oxygen,  and 
form  carbonic  acid.  There  is,  and  can  be  no  intermediate 
step.  „  Having  determined  the  combining  atomic  number  of 
oxygen,  that  of  all  other  bodies  may  be  found  by  determin- 
ing how  much  of  each  is  necessary  exactly  to  unite  with  8 
of  oxygen.  For  instance,  the  iron  used  in  the  experiment 
of  decomposing  water,  increases  in  weight;  if  it  is  all 
equally  oxidated,  it  is  found  to  increase  8  Ibs.  for  every  28 
Ibs.  of  iron  used.  If,  therefore,  28  Ibs.  of  iron  are  used,  and 
9  Ibs.  of  water,  the  iron  may  be  wholly  oxidated  by  the  8 
Ibs.  of  oxygen  of  the  water.  Deducting  this  from  the  total 
weight  of  the  oxide  of  iron,  36  Ibs.,  the  balance  is  the  com- 
bining or  atomic  weight  of  iron.  The  sum  of  8  -f  28  =  36  is 
therefore  the  atomic  weight  of  oxide  of  iron.  The  atomic 
weight  of  all  compounds  is  the  sum  of  the  atomic  weight  of 
their  constituents.  The  number  of  atoms  in  any  compound, 
whose  proportional  constituents  by  weight  are  given,  is 
found  by  dividing  each  by  its  respective  atomic  weight.  For 
instance,  the  composition  of  carbonic  acid  above,  gives  in  2*2 
parts,  6  of  carbon,  and  16  of  oxygen.  Each  divided  by  its 
atomic  weight,  gives  1  carbon,  2  of  oxygen,  =-=22  of  car- 
bonic acid.  So  in  a  compound  of  several  elements,  having 
their  proportions  per  cent,  given,  each  divided  by  its  atomic 
number,  gives  the  relative  proportion  of  the  atoms.  These 
reduced  to  simplest  terms,  and  affixed  to  the  letters  or  sym- 
bols of  the  elements,  constitute  what  is  called  the  chemical 
formula  of  this  compound. 

Three  laws  discovered  by  multiplied  observation,  con- 
firmed by  repeated  experiments,  govern  all  chemical  science. 
These  laws  are : 


CHEMISTRY    OF  SOIL.  47 

1st.  Bodies  combine  only  in  definite  proportion. 
2d.         "  multiple  proportion. 

3d.         "  equivalent  proportion. 

These  are  the  laws  of  chemical  combination.  The  atomic 
theory  attempts  to,  and  does  account  for  them.  Once  admit 
the  principle  that  bodies  combine  only  by  indivisible  atoms, 
these  laws  follow  as  consequences.  If  bodies  only  unite  by 
atoms,  atom  to  atom,  their  composition  must  be  definite.  It 
a  body  unites  an  atom  to  two  or  more  of  another,  then  a? 
atoms  are  indivisible,  the  second,  or  other  added  portion, 
must  be  a  multiple  of  the  first,  by  a  whole  number.  When 
bodies  unite  in  proportions  which  imply  half  atoms,  it  is 
because  union  has  occurred  between  two  atoms  of  one,  and 
three  atoms  of  another,  as  iron  may  unite  with  oxygen  so  as 
to  be  seemingly  a  compound  of  1  iron  to  1^  oxygen.  Truly 
this  is  a  compound  of  2  iron  to  3  oxygen.  Alumina  always 
oxidates  itself  in  this  proportion,  but  it  will  simplify  our 
views  to  consider  it  as  uniting  atom  to  atom.  Again,  if 
bodies  unite  only  by  atoms,  the  atom  of  one  may  be 
replaced  by  that  of  another ;  or,  which  is  the  same  thing, 
the  combining  proportion  of  one  may  replace  the  combining 
proportion  of  another,  for  they  are  equivalent  to  each  other. 
One  body  may  be  thus  successively  united  to  others,  in 
doses  which  represent  their  atomic  weights. 

56.  Calculating  on  this  fixed  principle,  that  the  combining 
weight  of  any  substance  is  the'  quantity  necessary  to  unite 
with  8  of  oxygen,  it  is  found,  that  the  proportions  in  which 
the  bases  of  silicates  combine,  are 

8  oxygen,    8  silicon  =  16  silica, 

8       "         10  aluminum        =  18  alumina, 
8      "         20  calcium  =  28  lime, 

8      "         12  magnesium     =  20  magnesia, 
8      "         40  potassium        —  48  potash, 


48  CHEMISTRY   OF    SOIL. 

8  oxygen,  24  sodium  =  32  soda, 

8      "        28  iron  =  36  oxide  of  iron, 

8  •  '  28  manganese  =  36  oxide  of  manganese. 
When  any  of  these  oxidated  substances  unite  to  an  acid,  it 
is  only  in  these  proportions.  The  numbers  are  equivalents 
— that  is,  48  of  potash  are  equal  in  saturating  power,  to  32 
of  soda,  or  28  of  lime.  All  equivalents,  entering  into  the 
composition  of  soil,  contain  the  same  quantity  of  oxygen. 
Hence,  if  from  each  of  the  above  numbers  in  the  third 
column,  8,  the  constant  quantity,  i*  deducted,  the  remainder 
represents  the  equivalent  of  the  respective  pure  metals, 
which  chemists  represent  by  the  termination  in  um  or  tun; 
and  hence  are  formed,  potassium,  sodium,  &c.  (40),  (41). 

57.  The  equivalent  of  sulphur  is  16,  adding  3  oxygen  ==» 
24  parts,  sulphuric  acid  is  formed  =  40. 

The  equivalent  of  phosphorus  is  32,  adding  5  oxygen  = 
40  parts,  phosphoric  acid  is  formed.  The  equivalent  of  car- 
bon is  6,  adding  2  oxygen  =16  parts,  carbonic  acid  is 
funned. 

Hence,  the  equivalents  of  these  acids  are  40,  72,  22,  num- 
bers produced  by  adding  the  proportions  of  oxygen  to  the 
respective  bodies.  These  acids  combine,  in  their  above 
equivalent  proportions,  with  the  bases  of  silicates,  forming 
neutral  salts,  or  with  two  or  more  proportions  of  acid  form 
super-salts,  or  with  a  larger  portion  of  base,  form  sub-salts, 
and  thus  form  fixed  and  invariable  compounds.  Sulphate  of 
lime  is,  therefore,  in  proportion  of  28  of  lime  to  40  of  acid. 
Carbonate  of  lime,  28  of  lime  to  22  of  acid.  Phosphate  of 
lime  has  a  larger  proportion  of  base,  3  parts  or  84  of  lime 
to  72  of  acid  ;  this  is  bone  earth,  so  called  ;  and  the  equiva- 
lent of  each  of  these  salts  is  the  number  produced,  by  add- 
ing that  of  the  lime  to  that  of  the  acid. 

58.  If  sulphur,  phosphorus,  carbon,  silicon,  arc  united  to 


CHEMISTRY  OF    SOIL.  49 

the  bases  (40),  combination  can  take  place  only  in  the 
equivalent  proportions.  It  is  thus  evident,  that  soil,  con- 
sisting of  silicates,  metalloid  compounds,  and  salts,  is  a  fixed, 
unvarying,  chemical  combination  of  these  substances,  though 
mixed  in  proportions,  somewhat  varied  by  local  causes,  yet 
presenting,  in  the  mass,  a  great  similarity  of  composition. 
When  the  subject  of  the  composition  of  the  vegetable  por- 
tion of  soil  is  discussed,  the  value  of  a  slight  knowledge  of 
chemical  notation  and  of  combining  proportions,  will  be 
manifest.  It  is  not  to  be  neglected,  however  unconnected  it 
may  seem  with  practical  farming.  The  doctrine  of  chemical 
equivalents  is  important  to  the  farmer,  even  if  he  pursues  it 
no  farther  than  to  understand  and  remember  the  combining 
proportions  of  -a  few  substances,  known  to  him  only  by 
name ;  such  are  the  common  acids,  oil  of  vitriol,  aquafortis, 
spirits  of  salt,  or  sulphuric,  nitric,  and  muriatic  acids ;  the 
usual  alkalies,  ammonia,  potash,  soda,  lime  ;  acids  and  bases, 
which  combine  only  in  their  equivalents.  It  is  sometimes 
remarked,  in  agricultural  experiments  with  different  salts, 
that  equal  quantities,  if  correct  comparative  trials  are  to  be 
made,  should  be  used.  The  doctrine  of  equivalents  teaches 
not  an  equal,  but  an  equivalent  portion — that  is,  28  of  lime 
are  equal  to  48  of  pure  potash.  It  may  assist  the  memory 
here,  and  furnish  a  good  "  rule  of  thumb,"  to  recollect,  that 
the  three  alkalies,  ammonia,  soda,  potash,  are  to  each  other, 
as  17  :  32  :  48,  or  as  1  :  2  :  3,  nearly.  When  the  subject 
of  manures  is  considered,  the  doctrine  of  equivalents  will 
be  found  important,  in  determining  their  relative  value. 
Though  the  numbers  here  used  are  those  of  some  chemists 
of  high  authority,  they  are  not  all  universally  admitted. 
They  have  the  convenience  of  being  small  whole  numbers. 
They  are  readily  retained  in  the  memory,  and  simplify  the 
jubject,  by  freeing  the  calculation  from  multiplication  and 


60 


CHEMISTRY  OF  SOIL. 


division  of  fractional  equivalent  numbers.  They  are  easily 
apprehended,  and,  for  all  practical  agricultural  purposes, 
correct 

59.  Viewed  by  the  light  of  chemistry,  rocks  are  masses 
of  silicates.  The  simple  minerals  composing  rocks  are  truly 
only  silicates  in  fixed  proportions.  The  simple  minerals  are 
quartz,  felspar,  mica,  hornblende,  talc,  serpentine.  Their 
comooatton  is  presented  in  the  following 

TABLE    OF   CONSTITUTION    OF    SIMPLE    MINERALS. 


M 

B 

Alumina, 

I 
3 

-"I 
1* 

<2* 

4 

a 
to 

j 

Oxide*  of  1 
Iron  and 

MIIIUMIH-S.  ' 

Felspar,  
Mica,  gray  ,  ... 

66.76 
50.82 

1750 
21.33 

1.26 

12.00 
9.86 

.76 

"     brown,  

40.00 

22.40 

4:60 

1  79 

45.69 

12.18 

13.83 

18  79 

1  HI 

58.2 

water 

382 

4  6 

4307 

0.25 

0.50 

12.75 

4037 

1.11 

In  each  the  silex  acts  as  an  acid.  This  is  not  only  the 
most  constant,  but  the  most  abundant  ingredient  of  rocks. 
Next  is  alumina.  The  average  quantity  of  these  elements 
in  the  most  important  rocks,  is  silica  62.79,  alumina  25.15 
per  cent. 

60.  In  each  simple  mineral,  the  bases  (41 )  being  combined 
with  silica,  a  compound,  or  silicate  is  formed.  In  this  case, 
the  few  simple  minerals  forming  rocks,  may  be  arranged  in 
three  classes,  and  it  will  be  perceived  that,  notwithstanding 
their  great  variety  of  external  appearance,  their  ultimate 
chemical  composition  resolves  itself  into  classes  of  double, 
or  simple  silicates,  in  which  silicate  of  alumina  13  united  with 
potash,  or  lime,  or  with  magnesia,  forming  thus  three  classes 
only  of  simple  minerals,  which  compose  rocks  and  soil. 

1st.  Silicate  of  alumina  and  potash  forms  felspar  and 
mica. 


CHEMISTRY   OF   SOIL. 


51 


2d.  Silicates  of  alumina  and  lime  with  magnesia  form 
hornblende. 

3d.  Silicate  of  magnesia  forms  serpentine  and  talc ;  and 
silica  almost  pure,  is  quartz. 

61.  The  iron  and  manganese  in  the  table  (59),  are  re- 
garded as  accidental  mixtures  of  silicates  of  these  metals. 
Silicate  of  soda  is  often  present  in  place  of  potash,  and  this 
constitutes  an  extensive  variety  of  the  felspar  family. 


CHAPTER    III. 

OF   THE    MINERAL   ELEMENTS    OF    BOIL,    THEIR   PROPERTIES,  AND 
CHEMICAL   ACTION. 

62.  THE  bases  of  the  silicates  have  common  properties, 
which  are : 

1st.  Alkaline.  Whatever  may  be  our  idea  of  the  effect 
of  an  alkali,  as  exhibited  by  potash  or  soda,  the  same  in 
kind,  but  in  degree  less,  is  exhibited  by  lime,  magnesia,  and 
alumina.  Placing  potash  as  the  type  of  alkaline  power,  the 
same  power  in  a  decreasing  order  is  found  in  lime,  magne- 
sia, and  alumina. 

2d.  They  are,  most  of  them,  soluble  in  water.  Potash 
stands  here  also  first,  and  the  solubility  decreases  in  lime, 
magnesia,  and  totally  disappears  in  alumina.  This  may 
have  some  connection  with  the  fact,  that,  widely  diffused  as 
it  is  in  all  soil,  it  is  very  seldom  found  in  plants. 

3d.  They  exhibit  great  affinity  for  carbonic  acid.  The 
order  of  affinity  is  potash,  soda,  lime,  magnesia ;  alumina, 
if  it  possesses  it  at  all,  exhibits  it  only  feebly.  The  alkalies 
form  soluble,  and  the  alkaline  earths,  and  alumina  insoluble 
compounds  with  carbonic  acid. 

4th.  They  have  all  great  affinity  for  Mater,  combining 
with  it,  and  forming  what  are  called  hydrates.  Potash  parts 
not  with  this  chemically  combined  water,  by  any  heat  which 
has  been  produced  ;  lime  and  magnesia  give  up  their  water 
readily,  nt  a  red  heat:  alumina  requires,  for  this  purpose,  a 


PROPERTIES  OF  ELEMENTS   OF  SOIL.  53 

full  white  heat.  This  is  the  only  case  where  alumina  stands 
next  to  potash. 

5th.  They  are  all  fusible,  in  the  order  of  potash,  lime 
magnesia,  alumina. 

6th.  They  have  already  been  described  as  definite  combi- 
nations of  metals  and  oxygen  (56).  The  same  law  governs 
their  combinations  with  water.  Such  compounds  are  termed 
hydrates,  from  "wc?or,"  water.  Water  is  a  compound  of 
eight  parts  of  oxygen,  and  one  part  of  hydrogen,  forming 
one  part  of  water,  whose  equivalent  is  9.  Taking  the  num- 
ber representing  the  base  (56),  or  rather  the  basic  oxide, 
the  equivalents  of  the  hydrates  are  obtained  by  adding  to 
each,  1  part  =  9  of  water.  Thus — 

Potash,      48  united  with  9  water,  forms  57  caustic  potash. 
Soda,         32  "          9      "  "    41       "        soda. 

Lime,         28  "          9     "  "     37       "        slacked  lime. 

Magnesia,  20  "          9     "  "29       "        magnesia. 

63.  The  same  law  pervades  all  these  various  combinations. 
There  are  strong  resemblances  in  the  alkaline  family,  which 
show  their  relation,  yet  each  is  marked  with  its  individual 
peculiarities.     Alumina  stands  alone,  and  seems  a  natural 
link,  connecting  the  silicates  with  the  metalloids. 

64.  The  gradual  passage  of  the  characters  of  the  metallic 
elements  of  the  silicates,  into  that  of  the  metalloids,  is  to  be 
observed.     The  first  show  alkaline  powers  by  combining 
with  oxygen.     Exhibited  in  the  highest  degree  by  potash, 
and  lowest  in  alumina,  which  shows  both  alkaline  and  acid 
properties.     By  the  last,  it  is  allied  to  silicon,  sulphur,  phos- 
phorus, carbon.     The  three  last  are  so  well  known  that  they 
need  only  to  be  mentioned. 

65.  The  metalloids  have  common  properties. 

1st.  They  all  combine  with  the  pure  base  of  silicates  (46), 
and  form  siliciurets,  phosphurets,  carburets,  sulphurets. 
Thus  are  formed  carburet  of  iron,  or  plumbago,  sulphuret 


64  PROPERTIES  OF   ELEMENTS  OF  SOIL. 

of  iron,  or  iron  pyrites,  sulphuret  of  potassium,  or  liver  of 
sulphur. 

2d.  They  chemically  combine  with  each  other.  Thus  are 
formed  sulphuret  of  carbon,  and  sulphuret  of  silicon. 

3d.  They  all  form  acids,  by  combining  with  oxygen. 
Thus  are  formed  sulphuric,  carbonic,  phosphoric,  silicic 
acids  (41). 

66.  While  the  metals  combine  with  oxygen  only  in  one 
proportion,  to  form  alkalies,  producing  it  always,  for  each, 
of  one  uniform  strength,  the  metalloids  combine  with  differ- 
ent proportions,  and  form  acids  of  different  strength.     The 
rule  followed  in  naming  the  acids,  is,  first,  that  each  is  called 
after   the  substance  forming  it,  the  metalloid  having  out 
added  to  it  to  designate  the  weaker,  and  t'c,  to  designate  the 
stronger  acid  ;  thus  : 

Sulphur  16+2  oxygen  =  16  is  sulphurous  acid. 
"         16  +  3       "       =  24  is  sulphuric  acid. 

So  are  formed  phosphorus  and  phosphoric  acids.  Silicon 
forms  but  one  acid,  the  silicic.  It  is  the  only  member  of  its 
class  which  requires  a  detailed  notice  of  its  properties. 

67.  Silicon,  the  base  of  the  earth  usually  called  silex  or 
silica,  forms,  next  to  oxygen,  the  largest  part  of  all  nx:ks 
and  soil.    It  has  been  already  noticed  (64),  how  the  earthy 
character  gradually  increased  from  potash  to  alumina  ;  and 
how  this  last  connected  itself  with  the  metalloids,  and  in  the 
first  member  of  this  series,  the  earthy  character  appears 
fully  developed  when  united  with  oxygen.     It  is  the  earth 
of  flints,  it  is  pure  rock  crystal,  it  is  common  quartz,  agate, 
and  calcedony,  and  cornelian.     All  these  are  silicon  acidified 
by  oxygen,  hence  called  silicic  acid.     It  is  this  which  forms, 
with  potash,  the  bard  coat  of  the  polishing  rush,  the  outer 
covering  of  the  stalks  of  grasses.     Wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley, 
owe  their  support  to  this  covering  of  silica.     It  cases  the 


PROPERTIES  OF   ELEMENTS   OF  SOIL.  55 

bamboo  and  rattan  with  an  armor  of  flint,  from  which  may 
be  struck  sparks.  Entering  into  the  composition  of  all  soil, 
and  hard  and  unyielding  as  it  appears,  forming  not  only  the 
solid  rock,  but  the  delicate  flower,  which  that  supports ; 
forming  combinations  with  the  metals  of  soil  whose  gradual 
decomposition  is  the  birth'  of  fertility,  silicon  demands  a 
detail  of  its  properties,  commensurate  with  the  high  func- 
tions it  performs. 

68.  Silicon,  in  the  purest  state  yet  obtained,  is  a  dull 
brown  powder,  soiling  the  fingers.     It  dissolves  in  fluoric 
acid,  and  in  caustic  potash.     Heated  in  air  or  oxygen  gas,  it 
burns  vividly,  and  is  partly  converted  into  silica.     Heated 
in  a  closed   crucible,  it  shrinks  very  much,   but  does  not 
vaporize.     Heat  has  altered  all  its  properties.     It  has  be- 
come a  deep  chocolate  color.     It  sinks  in  oil  of  vitriol,  one 
of  the  heaviest  of  fluids ;  it  will  dissolve  in  no  acid,  except 
a  mixture  of  nitric  and  fluoric;  caustic  alkali  has  no  action 
on  it,  nor  will  it  burn  in  the  intensest  flame  of  air  or  oxygen 
gas.     No  other  simple  substance   is  so  changed  by   heat. 
The    only   substance   exhibiting    analogous    properties,    is 
carbon. 

Silicon  burns  in  vapor  of  sulphur,  and  forms  sulphuret  of 
silicon.  This  easily  dissolves  in  water,  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen escapes,  and  silica  remains  in  solution.  These  are  facts 
of  the  highest  importance  in  agriculture. 

69.  Whether  heated  or  not,  silicon  is  oxidated  when  heated 
with  dry  potash,  and  converted  into  silicic  acid.     In  its  pure 
state,    this   is   a   rough,    gritty,    tasteless   powder.      When 
heated,  it  runs  like  red-hot  ashes,  and  the  lightest  puff  blows 
it  away.     It  is  not  melted  in  the  strongest  heat  of  a  wind 
furnace.     Silicic  acid  exists  in  two  states,  soluble  or  insolu- 
ble in  water.     It  is  perfectly  insoluble,  after  having  been 
heated  red-hot.    Sulphuret  of  silicon,  as  has  been   noticed 


56  PROPERTIES  OF   ELEMENTS  OF  SOIL. 

(68),  dissolves  in  water,  and  gives  silica,  in  solution.  If  this 
is  evaporated,  a  jelly-like,  sizy  mass  is  obtained,  which  may 
be  again  dissolved  in  water.  Acid,  added  to  the  solution, 
when  evaporating,  renders  silica  insoluble.  Alkalies,  boiled 
with  insoluble  silica,  render  it  soluble,  no  change  occurring 
in  the  alkali.  These  singular  changes  are  due,  probably,  to 
a  new  arrangement  of  the  particles  of  silica,  produced  by 
that  power  called  catalysis,  or  the  action  of  presence,  that 
is,  by  the  presence  of  a  third  body,  taking  no  part  itself 
in  the  action,  but  simply  influencing  the  changes  which 
occur. 

70.  Soluble  silica  exists  in  some  minerals,  and  is  produced 
when  a  silicate  is  melted  with  an  alkali,  and  dissolved  in 
dilute  acid.     It  is  in  consequence  of  this  ready  solubility  of 
silica,   that  a  small   quantity  is   contained  -in   all   natural 
waters;    associated   with   alkaline    carbonates  in    mineral 
springs,  it  is  often  an  abundant  product. 

71.  The  general  properties  which  silicic  acid  exhibits  in 
its  combinations,  are  these : 

1st.  All  its  compounds,  with  excess  of  alkali,  are  caustic, 
and  soluble  in  water.  Those  with  an  excess  of  silica,  are 
mild  and  insoluble.  Glass  is  an  example  of  the  last,  and  so 
are  the  rocks.  Green  bottle  glass  is  but  a  fused  rock,  a 
mixture  of  silicates  of  potash,  soda,  alumina,  lime,  magnesia, 
and  iron.  These  are  the  silicates  which  have  been  already 
enumerated  (60),  as  composing  rocks ;  and  the  amount  and 
origin  of  these  several  elements  of  soil  can  now  be  con- 
veniently understood.  This  is  practical  ground,  and  shows 
the  value  of  chemical  analysis  of  rocks.  Whatever  opinion 
respecting  their  origin  is  adopted,  and  whether  or  not  grdhite 
is  supposed  to  have  produced  the  soil  above  it,  or  that  it  is 
only  overlaid  by  granite  drift,  it  is  evident,  from  the  table 
(59),  that  all  granite  rocks  contain  lime  and  alkali.  These 


ALKALIES   IX   SOIL.  57 

will  be  in  proportion  to  the  mica  and  felspar,  for  granite 
(35)  is  composed  of  these  and  quartz. 

72.  The  composition  of  granite,  composed  of  two-fifths 
quartz,  two-fifths  felspar,  and  one-fifth  mica,  is  in  every  100 
parts, — 

Silex,. 74.84 

Alumina, 12.80 

Potash, 7.48 

Magnesia 99 

Lime, .37 

Oxide  of  Iron, 1.93 

Oxide  of  Manganese,  .....  .12 

In  every  100  Ibs.  of  granite,  7-J-  Ibs.  of  potash,  and  $-  Ib. 
of  lime.  Differ,  as  opinions  may,  about  the  how,  and  the 
why,  of  the  operation  of  lime  and  alkali,  it  is  evident,  that 
unexhausted  and  exhaustless  stores  of  these  substances  are 
already  in  barren  pine  plains. 

73.  Let  it  be  supposed  that  these  are  formed  of  the  drift 
of  granite,  composed  as  stated   (72),  and  the  amount  per 
acre  of  lime  and  alkali,  taking  the  soil  only  six  inches  deep, 
would  be  as  follows  :     The  cubic  foot  of  such  soil  weighs 
about  90  Ibs.  or  at  six  inches  deep,  45  Ibs.     The  acre  at  this 
depth  contains  21,780  cubic  feet,  which  will  afford  3626  Ibs. 
of  lime,  and  73,311  Ibs.  of  potash,  or  nearly  a  ton  and  a 
half  of  lime,  and  thirty-six  tons  of  potash. 

74.  The  lime  in  such  a  soil  would  be  enough  to  supply 
that  contained  in  a  crop  of  rye,  at  20  bushels  per  acre,  for 
7400  years ;  for  at  20  bushels  per  acre,  and  at  50  Ibs.  per 
bushel,  each  acre  would  afford   1000  Ibs.   of  grain,   which 
contain  nearly  -^  Ib.  of  lime,  or  0.49  (Schroeder),  dividing 
3626  by  this,  the  quotient  7400  is  the  number  of  years  the 
lime  would  supply  the  grain.     Wheat  will  not  differ  much 
from  rye,  and  if  the  time  is  diminished,  by  the  amount  of 

3* 


58  ALKALIES  IN  SOIL. 

lime  contained  in  the  straw,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  actual 
amount  of  lime  and  potash,  in  what  is  called  poor  soil,  will 
hardly  begin  to  diminish  at  the  end  of  a  long  lease,  cropping 
every  year  30  bushels  of  wheat.  Allowing  thus,  for  exam 
pie,  the  proportion  of  straw  which  such  a  crop  would  afford, 
to  be  about  5000  Ibs.,  and  this  is  not  far  from  the  truth,  the 
straw  gives  4.40  of  its  weight  of  ashes,  or  220  Ibs.,  of  which 
one-fifth  is  soluble  in  water,  and  one-half  of  that  dissolved 
is  potash.  The  spent  ashes,  or  that  part  not  soluble  in 
water,  contains  5.80  per  cent,  of  lime.  On  these  data,  an 
acre  of  wheat  straw,  or  2£  tons,  will  give  220  Ibs.  of  ashes, 
containing  22  Ibs.  of  potash,  and  10  Ibs.  of  lime.  The 
potash  will  last  at  this  rate  for  the  straw,  over  3000  years  ! 
It  will  be  hereafter  shown,  that  when  the  lime  fails,  the  crop 
will  not. 

Since  the  first  edition  of  this  work  appeared,  numerous 
ash  analyses  of  rye  have  been  made  by  the  first  chemists 
and  analysts  of  the  day.  Calculating  the  lime  in  rye  on  the 
average  of  these  results,  1000  Ibs.  of  grain  would  give  23 
Ibs.  of  ashes.  Of  this  amount,  1.145  Ib.  is  lime;  and  even 
at  this  rate  the  grain  of  20  bushels  of  rye  per  year,  from  an 
acre,  would  exhaust  the  soil  of  lime  in  the  first  six  inches 
from  the  surface,  only  in  3166  years.  Allowing  4000  Ibs. 
of  straw  annually,  the  lime  in  this  is  11.25  Ibs.,  equal  to  322 
annual  crops,  or  the  lime  would  last  for  the  grain  and  straw 
293  years. 

75.  Were  similar  calculations  extended  to  soil  supposed  to 
be  formed  of  any  other  rock,  the  amount  of  lime  and  alkali 
•would  still  be  seen  to  be  almost  inexhaustible.  And  whether 
rocks  be  supposed  or  not,  to  form  the  soil  over  them,  it  may 
be  established,  as  the  fourth  leading  principle  of  agricultural 
chemistry,  THAT  SOILS  CONTAIN  ENOUGH  OF  ALL  THE  MINERAL 

ELEMENTS,  TO  GROW  ANY  CROP. 


ACTION   OF  ELEMENTS  OF  SOIL.  59 

78.  These  elements  do  not  exist  in  soil,  free ;  they  exist 
as  silicates,  or  salts,  compounds  regulated  by  the  unbending 
laws  of  affinity,  and  fixed  as  are  the  laws  of  gravitation. 
The  decompounding  of  these  combinations,  or  the  gradual 
decay  of  rocks  and  soil,  takes  place  also  by  similar  laws. 
Gradually  acted  upon  by  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  air,  the 
agency  of  growing  plants,  the  action  of  various  salts,  formed 
by  metalloids  in  atmospheric  exposure,  the  silicates  yield  to 
new  affinities.  The  alkalies,  freed  partially  or  entirely  from 
the  embrace  of  silica,  dissolve,  and  are  borne  seaward  ;  the 
silica  itself  is  dissolved  by  the  water  used  for  drink ;  the 
insoluble  alumina,  still  combined  with  a  portion  of  potash 
and  silica,  remains,  forming  the  great  mass  of  clays,  or 
mixed  with  granitic  sand,  forms  loam. 

77.  Felspar,  mica,  hornblende,  are  constantly  acted  upon 
by  air  and  moisture.    This  action  is  chemical.    It  is  twofold. 
1st.  The  action  of  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  air,  or  of  carbon- 
ates, upon  silicates.     The  potash,  or  alkaline  part  of  the  sili- 
cate is  by  this  means  separated.     The  mineral,  no  longer 
held  by  the  bond  which  had  united  its  components,  falls  into 
dust.     The  silica,  lime,  alumina,  magnesia,  thus  form  the 
finer  portions  of  soil.     In  obedience  to  a  well-established 
fact  in  chemistry,  the  seemingly  insoluble  silica,  and  alum- 
ina, and  magnesia,  in  the  very  moment  of  their  disunion,  are 
each  soluble  in  water.     They  may  then   ba    taken  up  by 
plants,  or  dissolved  by  various  acids  found  in  the  soil,  form 
salts. 

78.  The  second  mode  of  action,  of  air  and   moisture,  is 
upon  the  sulphurets,  the  phosphurets,  and  siliciurets.     The 
action  of  air  upon  all  these  is,  to  oxidate,  both  the  metallic 
and  the  unmetallic  element.     In  a  word,  the  metalloid  com- 
pounds, by  air  and  moisture,  become  salts*  the  unmetallio 
part  becoming  acid,  and  the  base  an  oxide,  which  combine. 


60  ACTION   OF   ELEMENTS  OF  SOIL. 

79.  The  fact  most  important  to  the  farmer  in  these  changes 
is,  that  these  compounds  are  continually,  in  all  soil,  becoming 
salts.     Whenever   iron   pyrites,   or   sulphuret  of    iron,   is 
found,  and  it  is  very  widely  diffused,  exposure  to  air  and 
moisture  acidifies  the  sulphur,  it  forms  oil  of  vitriol,  or  sul- 
phuric acid.      This  immediately  combines  with  iron,  and 
forms  copperas,  or  sulphate  of  iron,  or  with  alumina,  form- 
ing alum,  or  with  lime,  forming  plaster  of  Paris,  or  with 
magnesia,  forming  Epsom  salts ;  all  these  are  salts,  and 
liable  to  be  decomposed  by  any  free  alkali  which  may  be 
produced  by  the  decomposition  of  silicates. 

80.  Among  the  most  abundant  salts  in  soil,  arising  from 
the  actions  (79),  are  those  which  are  very  insoluble  in  water, 
and  not  liable,  therefore,  to  be  drained  off,  when  not  required 
by  plants.     These  are  sulphate  of  lime,  and  phosphates  of 
lime,  and  of  alumina,  and  iron.     The  sulphate  of  lime  is 
partially  soluble,  and  hence,  is  found  in  all  river  and  spring 
water;  but  phosphates. are  more  insoluble,  and  are  always 
found  in  soil. 

81.  That  sulphate  of  lime  might  possibly  exist  in  soil,  has 
been  admitted  by  all  who  understood  the  actions  (79),  and 
adding  to  this  the  fact  of  the  gradual  decomposition  of  the 
silicates  by  carbonic  acid,  the  function  of  sulphate  of  lime  in 
soil  was  easily  admitted.     The  double  silicates  of  lime  and 
potash  are  universally  diffused,  and  in  the  order  of  affinities 
sulphates  of  alkalies  and  of  lime  result. 

82.  It  is  not  so  easily  understood  how  phosphate  of  lime 
should  exist  in  soil.     The  true  source,  both  of  sulphate  and 
phosphate  of  lime,  and  of  the  solubility  of  silica  is  yet  to  be 
detected  by  exact  chemical  analysis.     It  is  to  be  looked  for 
in  the  sulphurets  and  phosphurets  of  silicon,  which  probably 
exist  in  rocks.  «rfThe  action  of  sulphuret  of  iron,  as  explained, 
would   demand   its  universal   diffusion,  to  account   for   the 


ACTION   OF   ELEMENTS   OF  SOIL.  01 

presence  of  sulphate  of  lime.  Sulphuret  of  iron  must  either 
now  exist,  or  have  ages  ago  existed,  as  widely  diffused  as  the 
silicates.  But  though  common  in  rocks,  its  presence  as  a 
sulphuret  will  not  account  for  the  quantity  of  sulphate  of 
lime  found  in  soil.  Vast  quantities  of  this  salt  are  annually 
borne  off  in  crops  ;  while  at  the  same  time,  a  large  portion 
of  that  hardest,  and,  as  is  generally  supposed,  utterly  insol- 
uble earth,  silex,  is  withdrawn  by  every  plant  which  grows. 
How  is  this  rendered  soluble  ? 

83.  This  question  may  be  answered,  if  it  be  admitted 
that  a  portion  of  the  silica  of  rocks  exists  as  a  sulphuret  of 
silicon.     The  action  of  air  and  moisture  upon  this  will  be 
understood  by  reference  to  section  68,  where   it  is  stated 
that  sulphuret  of  silicon  is  decomposed  by  water.     The  sul- 
phur, in  this  case,  is  evolved  as  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas, 
the  silica  deposited,  and  in  this  state  is  abundantly  soluble  in 
water.     The  sulphuretted  hydrogen  would  act  on  the  lime  of 
the  silicates,    and    gradually    sulphate   of    lime    would    be 
formed.     Here  is  an  abundant  source,  not  only  of  the  solu- 
bility of  silica,    a  point  always   of  difficult  explanation  in 
vegetable  physiology,  but  also  of  the  production  of  sulphate 
of  lime. 

84.  Similar  remarks  are  applicable  to  the  presence  of  the 
phosphates  of  lime,  and  iron,  and  alumina  in  soil.     Phos- 
phate of  lime  is  not  a  very  abundant  ingredient  in  rocks, 
except  in  certain  localities ;  yet  its  occurrence  is  too  rare  to 
account  for  the  vast  amount   of  phosphate  of  lime  in  soil. 
The  phosphorus  possibly  exists  in  combination  with  silicon, 
as  phosphuret  of  silicon.     The  effect  of  air  and  moisture  on 
this  has  already  been  explained,  and  accounts  for  the  pro- 
duction of  phosphates  in  soil.     Similar  remarks  are  applica- 
ble to  the  source  of  the  chlorides  or  muriates ;  for  instance, 
common  salt  in  the  potash  of  commerce.     May  not  their 


02  ACTION   OF   ELEMENTS  OF   SOIL. 

source  be"  in  chloride  of  silicon  ?  These  are  conjectures,  but 
conjectures  only,  because,  refined  as  modern  chemical  analy- 
sis is,  it  may  not  be  so  delicate  as  to  detect  the  possible 
combinations,  which  nature  presents  in  silicates.  What  is 
the  source  of  that  phosphoric  odor,  produced  by  the  friction 
of  fragments  of  pure  quartz  on  each  other?  If  not  due 
wholly  to  electrical  excitement,  may  it  not  arise  from  the 
presence  of  phosphoric  elements'?  The  elements  are  Pro- 
tean, and  assume  new  dresses,  by  the  very  processes  adopted 
to  unfold  them.  Whatever  may  be  their  origin,  their  con- 
stant presence  leads  to  this  fifth  principle  of  agricultural 
chemistry,  ALL  SOIL  CONTAINS  SULPHATK  AND  PHOSPHATE  OF 
LIME. 

85.  This  principle  is  of  the  highest  importance  in  agricul- 
ture.    The  author  of  these  pages  stated  the  fact  to  the  Geo- 
logical Surveyor  of  Massachusetts,  in  1837,  and  it  was  pub- 
lished in  his  report.     Slowly  admitted  at  first,  the  fact  that 
phosphates  exist  in  all  soil,  has  been  established  by  the 
widest  observations.     Its  proofs  are  both  chemical  and  agri- 
cultural.    The  chemical  proof  is  found  in  the  extensive  anal- 
yses of  soil  contained  in  various  Geological  Reports,  espe- 
cially those  of  Massachusetts,  published  within  a  few  years. 
Since  the  first  edition  of  this  work,  phosphoric  acid  has  been 
found  in  basaltic  and  hornblende  rocks. 

86.  The  agricultural  proof  may  be  stated  in  a  few  words. 
The  bones  of  all  graminivorous  animals  contain  about  half 
their  weight  of  phosphate  of  lime.     It  can  be  derived  only 
from  their  food,  and  that  only  from  the  soil.     Hence  the 
soil  contains  phosphoric  acid  in  some  chemical  c6mbination. 
Secondly,  the   actual  result  of  chemical  analysis  confirms 
this  statement.     Beets,  carrots,  beans,  peas,  potatoes,  aspara- 
gus, cabbage,  afford  phosphates  of  lime,  magnesia,  and  pot* 
ash.     Indian  corn,  rice,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  all  contain  nota- 


ACTION   OF   ELEMENTS  OF  SOIL.  63 

Lie  portions  of  sulphate  and  phosphate  of  lime,  not  only  5n 
the  grain,  but  in  the  straw.  Smut  and  ergot  show  free 
phosphoric  acid.  Cotton  gives  1  per  cent,  of  ashes,  of  which 
0.17  are  phosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia.  The  cotton  con- 
sumed weekly,  in  the  Lowell  Mills,  is  400,000  Ibs.,  contain- 
ing 680  Ibs.  of  phosphate  of  lime,  and  this  would  furnish 
the  bone-earth  for  the  bones  of  seventeen  horses,  allowing  90 
Ibs.  to  each  skeleton,  of  which  40  Ibs.  would  consist  of  phos- 
phate of  lime.  That  beautiful  yellow  powder,  shed  by  pine 
forests,  the  pollen  of  its  flowers,  wafted  about  in  clouds,  and 
descending  with  the  rain,  covering  the  surface  of  water  with 
its  sulphur-like  film,  is  composed  of  6  per  cent,  of  phosphates 
of  lime  and  potash.  The  ashes  of  all  wood  contain  sulphate 
and  phosphate  of  lime.  Garget  contains  in  its  leaves  beau- 
tiful crystals  of  phosphate  of  lime  and  ammonia ;  and  every 
exact  analysis  of  the  ashes  of  trees,  shrubs  and  plants  of 
every  kind,  cultivated  or  wild,  shows  the  presence  of  phos- 
phoric acid 


x  t-rr n          <•'• 

cr- 


CHAPTER  IV. 

OF   THE    ORGANIC    CONSTITUENTS     OF   SOIL. 

87.  The  mineral  elements  of  soil  become  part  of  plants. 
Under  the  influence  of  the  mysterious  principle  of  life,  they 
no  longer  obey  the  chemical  laws,  but  are  parts  of  a  living 
structure.     Life  suspends  all  chemical  laws.     It  organizes 
inorganic  matter.     To  what  laws  obedient,  to  what  purposes 
subservient,  are  the  elements  of  soil  during  the  brief  moment 
in  which  they  are  endowed  with  life,  it  is  not  intended  to 
inquire.     Plants,  by  their  living  power,  select  from  the  sixty- 
two  elementary  substances,  sixteen  or  perhaps  eighteen.     Of 
these,  four  exist  as  airs  or  gases  in  their  uncombined  state, 
viz. :  oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  chlorine  ;  seven  are 
bases,  and  four  metalloids,  described  (41).     These  fifteen 
elements,  alumina  excepted,  are  generally  constant  constitu- 
ents of  plants.     Iodine,  once  supposed  peculiar  to  marine 
vegetation,  has  very  recently  been  found  in  land  plants. 
Bromine  is  also  found  in  seaweed,  and  fluorine  has  occasion- 
ally been  found  in  the  ashes  of  rye. 

88.  Every  plant  does  not,  nor  does  every  part  of  the 
same  plant  contain  the  same  elements ;  but  similar  parts  of 
the  same  plant,  at  the  same  age,  probably  contain  the  same 
elements,  united  in  definite  proportions.     Whenever  plants 
die,  their  elements  are  ngain  subject  to  the  laws  of  affinity, 
and   during  the  decay  of  vegetables,   they    return   to   the 
earth  not  only  those  substances  which  the  plants  had  taken 

(M) 


OKQANIC    CONSTITUENTS  OF    SOIL.  65 

from  the  soil,  but  also  those  which  have  been  elaborated  by 
their  living  structure.  The  former  are  silicates  and  salts,  or 
the  inorganic  elements ;  the  latter  are  the  organic  parts  of 
soil. 

In  the  first  edition  of  this  work,  chlorine  was  not  enumer- 
ated as  an  element  of  plants.  Its  presence  in  them  was 
considered  accidental,  because  its  source  had  not  been  de- 
tected in  the  rocks,  from  whose  ruins  soil  has  been  formed. 
Dr.  A.  A.  Hayes  has  detected  alkaline  chlorides  in  the  pri- 
mary rocks  of  Vermont.  The  possible  existence  of  chloride 
of  silicon  has  been  noticed.  If  this  is  not  the  source  of  the 
chlorine  of  plants,  that  may  be  supposed  to  be  evaporated 
as  a  chloride  from  the  ocean,  and  consequently  to  exist  in 
that  state,  dissolved  in  air.  If  derived  from  this  salt  in  soil, 
then  that  is  extraneous.  Its  origin  was  suggested  to  be 
oceanic.  An  examination  of  the  rain-water,  of  each  fall, 
during  the  year  1842,  in  Lowell,  has  shown  that  this  sugges- 
tion is  correct.  Probably  muriates  are  universally  contained 
in  rain-water.  As,  therefore,  common  salt,  the  chlorine  and 
soda  of  plants  is  derived  by  evaporation  from  sea-water, 
then  as  sulphate  of  lime  has  been  detected  in  snow  and  hail, 
it  becomes  a  question,  whether  other  inorganic  salts  of 
plants  may  not  have  a  similar  origin,  and  exist  dissolved 
in  air. 

Continued  examination  of  rain  water  has  shown  that  all 
the  mineral  elements  of  plants  are  traceable  in  it. 

89.  It  is  thus  seen,  that  soil  presents  itself  in  a  new  view. 
Soil  consists  of  two  grand  divisions  of  elements.  Inorganic 
and  organic.  The  inorganic  are  wholly  mineral,  they  are 
the  products  of  the  chemical  action  of  the  metallic,  or  unme- 
tallic  elements  of  rocks.  They  existed  before  plants  or  ani- 
mals. Life  has  not  called  them  into  existence,  nor  created 
them  out  of  simple  elements.  Organic  elements  are  the 


tj(>  ORGANIC  CONSTITUENTS  OP  SOIL. 

product  of  substances  once  endowed  with  life.  This  power 
influences  the  elements,  recombines  them  in  forms  so  essen- 
tially connected  with  life,  that  they  are,  with  few  exceptions, 
produced  only  by  a  living  process.  They  are  the  products 
of  living  organs,  hence  termed  organic ;  and  when  formed, 
are  subject  to  chemical  laws.  The  number  of  elements  in 
the  inorganic  parts  of  soil  is  twelve.  Oxygen,  sulphur, 
phosphorus,  carbon,  silicon,  and  the  metals,  potassium 
sodium,  calcium,  aluminium,  magnesium,  iron,  and  manga- 
nese (56).  The  number  of  elements  in  organic  parts  of 
soil,  does  not  exceed  four,  viz. :  oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon, 
and  nitrogen. 

90.  The  great  difference  between  these  two  divisions  is 
this,  that  while  the  inorganic  are  simple  combinations  of  two 
elementary    substances,  the  organic  are  combinations    of 
three  or  four  elements,  but  never  less  than  three.     These 
are  variously  combined.     They  have  formed  the  great  body 
of  vegetable  products ;  continually  changing,  the  mere  ab- 
straction of  a  part  of  one  of  their  elements  forms  a  new 
product.     The  three  elements  (89),  exist  generally  in  such 
proportion,  that  the  oxygen  and  hydrogen  would,  by  their 
union,  produce   water,  without  excess  of  either  element, 
while  the  carbon  would   thus  be  liberated.     It  would   be 
found  free  were  it  not  also  acted  upon  by  air  and  moisture, 
and  changed  to  carbonic  acid.     There  is  not  oxygen  enough 
in  the  organic  part  to  convert  the  carbon  into  carbonic  acid, 
and  the  hydrogen  into  water.     They  are  constantly  changing, 
assuming  new  forms.     This  susceptibility  of  change  is  the 
foundation  of  tillage. 

91.  The  relation  of  agriculture  to  silicates  and  salts,  and 
to  the  composition  of  plants,  which  has  been  alluded  to  (89), 
is  of  the  highest  interest.     As  silicates  and  salts  compose 
all  the  earthy  ingredients  of  soil,  so  are  they  equally  con« 


ORGANIC   ELEMENTS   OF  SOIL.  67 

stant  in  plants.     The  deduction  to  be  drawn  from  this  is, 
the  sixth  principle  of  agricultural  chemistry,  SOIL,  CONSISTING 

CHIEFLY  OF  ONE  SILICATE,  OR  SALT,  IS  ALWAYS  BARREN. 

92.  It  is  not  probable  that  soil  thus  chemically  constituted, 
exists.     Admitting  such  to  occur,  even  then,  when  dressed 
with  the  food  of  plants,  it  would  not  be  fertile.     The  want 
of  a  mixture  of  earthy  ingredients,  which  are  as  essential  to 
the  growth  of  plants  as  are  air  and  moisture,  would  effect- 
ually prevent  the  growth  of  crops.     Only  a  portion  of  the 
elements  thus  essential  to  plants    exists    in  them  in  that 
state  in  which  they  exist  in  soil.     The  silica,  and  potash, 
and  lime,  exist  in  plants  as  in  soil,  as  silicate  of  potash,  and 
sulphates  and  phosphates  of  lime  and  potash.     When  the 
ashes  of  plants  are  examined,  we  find  carbonates  of  bases 
which  did  not  exist  as  such  in  the  soil.     A  large  portion  of 
carbonates  of  lime  and  potash  is  found  in  ashes. 

93.  The  origin  of  these  is  to  be  sought  in  acids  which,  by 
heat,  produce  carbonic  acid.     This  is  the  effect  of  heat  upon 
all   salts   formed    of  vegetable   acids.     Such   are  tartaric, 
malic,    citric,  oxalic,  and    acetic  acids.     The  inorganic  ele- 
ments of  plants  exist  in  combination  chiefly  with  organic  or 
vegetable  acids.     Each  plant  forms  acids,  in  definite  quan- 
tity, proportionate  to  the  size,  age,  and  part  of  the  plants  ; 
the  acid  being  constant,  the  bases  to  saturate  them  will  be 
equally  constant. 

94.  A  beautiful  chemical  law  governs  this  saturation  of 
the   vegetable  acids.     It  is  the  law  of  substitution,  analo- 
gous in  part  to  the  law  of  isomorphism,  or  the  law  of  simi- 
lar forms  ;  it  is   perhaps  connected  with  that,  so  that  the 
elements  of  isomorphous  groups  only  can  be  substituted  for 
one  another.     In  minerals  which  are  crystallized  it  was  for- 
merly thought   that  similarity  of  external  form  indicated 
identity  of  chemical  composition.      Later  observation  hai 


68  LAW  OF  SUBSTITUTION. 

established  the  fact,  that  minerals  and  salts  exist,  with  per- 
fect similarity  of  external  form,  yet  of  totally  different 
chemical  constitution.  For  example,  the  alumina  in  alum 
may  be  replaced  by  oxide  of  iron.  The  form  will  not  be 
changed,  but  all  its  chemical  properties  and  relations  are 
destroyed.  This  is  called  an  isomorphous  replacement  of 
one  element  for  another,  which  produces  a  like  form.  The 
law  of  this  substitution  is,  that  the  body  replacing  another, 
must  be,  not  an  equal,  but  an  equivalent  proportion  (56) ; 
that  is,  replaced  by  a  proportion  containing  the  same  quan- 
tity of  oxygen.  Replacement  retains  the  form,  not  the 
properties  of  the  displaced  body.  Substitution  may  retain 
the  form,  but  always  the  properties  and  functions  of  the  ele- 
ment whose  place  is  thus  occupied.  Like  replacement,  sub- 
stitution occurs  in  equivalent  proportions. 

95.  The  relation  between  agriculture  and  this  law  is  so 
wisely  and  beneficially  ordained,  that  it  might  well  be  called 
a  law  of  compensation,  by  the  Natural  Theologian.  It  is  a 
well-established  fact,  that  plants  growing  on  soil  containing 
a  due  mixture  of  earthy  ingredients,  always  select  a  due 
proportion  of  each,  according  to  their  functions ;  yet,  if  to 
such  soil  an  excess  of  either  of  the  alkalies,  or  of  the  alka- 
line earths  is  given,  an  excess  of  potash,  soda,  lime,  magne- 
sia, may  be  taken  up  by  the  plants,  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
usual  proportion  of  another ;  hence,  it  may  be  established 
as  the  seventh  principle  in  Agricultural  Chemistry,  ONE  BASK 

MAY  BE   SUBSTITUTED    FOE    ANOTHER,  IN    AN    EQUIVALENT    PRO- 
PORTION. 

9&  This  is  a  very  important  law  in  the  agricultural  rela- 
tions of  the  inorganic  parts  of  soil.  Whatever  may  be  the 
office  performed  by  these,  in  the  living  structure,  none  is 
of  higher  value  than  this,  that  they  may  be  thus  substituted, 
the  one  for  the  other.  It  is  a  fact  of  the  highest  practical 


LAW   OF  SUBSTITUTION.  69 

value.  Its  value  will  be  perceived  when  it  is  considered 
that  if  soil  containing  originally  all  the  elements  essential  to 
a  crop  becomes  exhausted  of  one,  yet  another  may  be  sub- 
stituted, which,  combining  with  the  organic  acid  of  the 
plant,  enables  this  to  perform  and  perfect  all  its  functions. 
If  a  crop  fails,  this  is  often  charged  upon  the  deficiency  of 
lime  in  the  soil.  It  has  been  already  shown  that  this  is 
quite  impossible,  yet  granting  it  true,  so  long  as  the  law  of 
substitution  exists,  so  long  may  potash,  soda,  magnesia,  that 
is,  ashes,  supply  the  place  of  lime. 

Ashes  are  the  product  of  combustion,  or  its  equivalent, 
decaying  and  mouldering  vegetable  matter. 

97.  Substitutions  in  plants,  relate   chiefly  to  the  bases 
combined  with  the  vegetable  or  organic  acids.     The  mineral 
or  inorganic  acids  exist  already  saturated  in  the  soil,  as  sul- 
phates, phosphates,  or  muriates. 

It  has  been  observed,  however,  in  recent  investigations, 
that  phosphoric  acid  is  not  always  united  to  the  same  num- 
ber of  equivalents  of  base,  in  the  ashes  of  seeds ;  all  the 
leguminous  seeds  have  three  of  fixed  base,  to  one  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  while  the  cereal  grains  contain  two  of  base  to 
one  of  acid.  The  quantity  of  oxygen  contained  in  the  bases 
of  these  seeds  is  so  nearly  alike,  that  Drs.  Will  and  Frese- 
nius  think  that  the  law  of  substitution  applies  to  the  phos- 
phates. 

98.  In  consequence  of  the  law  of  substitution,  the  oxygen 
in  the  bases  of  organic  acid  salts  is  a  constant  quantity, 
although  ashes  of  the  same  plant  may,  by  analysis,  show  a 
great  diversity  of  composition  ;  this  can  arise  only  from  the 
fact  that  the  organic  acids  exist  probably  in  a  definite  pro- 
portion in  each  family  of  plants.     The  acids  are  formed  by 
the  essential  vital  functions  of  the  plant.     To  the  perfection 
of  this  process  the  silicates  and  salts  of  the  soil  are  not  less 


70  ORGANIC  ELEMENTS      OF    SOIL. 

necessary  than  is  life  to  the  vegetable ;  but  though  one  ele- 
ment may  be  substituted  for  another,  yet  no  one  element 
may  supply  the  place  of  all  others.  This  is  a  problem  yet 
to  be  solved.  Nor  may  any  possible  mixture  of  mere  sili- 
cates and  salts  give  fertility  to  a  barren  soil.  Fertility 
depends  on  the  presence  in  soil,  of  matter,  which  has  already 
formed  a  part  of  a  living  structure,  or  the  organic  elements 
of  soil.  This  matter  must  be  undergoing  chemical  change. 
Change  implies  motion,  motion  induces  motion  in  the  sur 
rounding  elements.  Without  this  chemically  induced 
motion,  there  is  no  fertility. 

99.  The  inorganic  elements  are  simple  combinations ;  the 
organic  are  simple  in  number,  but  wonderfully  complex  in 
their  combinations.     It  is  an  established  fact  that  all  com- 
plex compounds  are  unstable.     They  are  prone  to  form  new 
combinations.     The  more  complex,  the  easier  decomposed 
is  any  compound.     The  more  complex,  the  more  liable  to 
decomposition.     Hence,  the  moment  life  departs,  the  plant 
or  animal  speedily  undergoes  new  changes;  its  elements, 
which  life  had  organized,  obey  now,  not  the  law  of  life,  but 
the  laws  of  chemistry.     The  solids  and  fluids  of  a  living 
body,  when  life  ceases,  escaping  in  part  as  air  or  gas,  leave 
in  a  solid  form,  a  substance,  differing  equally  from  any  living 
organic  product,  and  from  inorganic  elements.     The  product 
of  the  spontaneous  decomposition  of  organic  substances  still 
may  exhibit  the  character  which  distinguishes  this  division, 
viz. :  complexity,  great  susceptibility  and  ease  of  decompo- 
sition.    This  is  a  great  practical  agricultural  fact.     When 
decomposition  ceases  in  organic  matter,  the  result  is  barren- 
ness. 

100.  In    the  products  of  the  decomposition  of  organic 
bodies,  a  variety  is  formed,  differing  according  to  the  circum- 
stances, and  the  time  and  progress  of   decay.     However 


ORGANIC  ELEMENTS  OF  SOIL.  71 

varied,  there  are  constant  products  of  organic  decomposition 
in  soil,  which  are  ever  the  result  of  that  process  in  or  upon 
the  earth.  These  products  are  termed  GEINE.  This  term 
designates  a  class  of  chemical  compounds,  allied  by  similar- 
ity of  constitution  and  properties.  Ge  is  the  Greek  for 
earth,  and  the  suffix  ine,  is  in  conformity  to  chemical  names 
given  to  those  vegetable  or  other  organic  products,  whose 
independent  existence  has  been  determined ;  for  example, 
quinine,  morphine,  &c. 

It  is  necessary  to  note  the  difference  in  the  products  of 
putrefaction  in  free  or  confined  air. 

In  free  air,  the  chief  products  are  water,  carbonic  acid 
and  ammonia.  In  confined  air,  the  carbon  not  obtaining 
oxygen  enough  to  be  wholly  converted  into  carbonic  acid, 
combines  with  a  smaller  quantity  and  forms  carbonic  oxide. 
The  hydrogen,  deprived  of  oxygen  sufficient  for  its  total 
conversion  into  water,  combines  with  carbon,  and  thus  pro- 
duces marsh  gas,  or  light  carburetted  hydrogen,  the  gas  of 
street  lights,  while  another  portion  of  hydrogen  combines 
with  the  sulphur  and  phosphorus  of  the  decaying  body,  and 
forms  those  airs  so  offensive  in  putrefaction,  sulphuretted 
and  phosphuretted  hydrogen  gases. 

In  all  the  transformations  of  organic  matter  in  soil,  there 
is  ever  produced  an  excess  of  hydrogen.  This  is  a  highly- 
important  fact. 

A  principle  is  here  to  be  stated  and  remembered.  Hy- 
drogen, at  the  instant  of  becoming  free,  in  the  act  of  being 
born,  in  its  nascent  state,  as  it  is  called,  in  warm  and  moist 
air,  unites  with  nitrogen.  This  union  produces  ammonia. 
The  nitrogen  of  putrefying  bodies  is  thus  removed  as  ammo- 
nia. Thus  are  removed  all  the  nitrogen,  and  a  portion  of 
the  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  of  the  decaying  organic 
body.  There  remain  the  several  forms  of  geine. 


72  ORGANIC   ELEMENTS  OF  SOIL. 

These  details  may  be  tabulated,  and  thus  the  products  of 
putrefaction  being  seen  at  a  glance,  may  be  readily  sealed  on 
the  memory. 

PUTREFACTION    PRODUCES   IN 
Free  air,  Confined  air, 

Water,  Water, 

Carbonic  acid,  Carbonic  oxide, 

Ammonia.  Carburetted  hydrogen, 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen, 

Phosphuretted  hydrogen, 

Ammonia, 

Geine. 

In  soil,  the  air  being  partly  free,  partly  confined,  all  the 
above  products  may  be  found.  These  vary,  therefore, 
according  as  the  putrefying  body  may  be  on  the  soil,  in  the 
soil,  or  in  the  subsoil. 

101.  There  are  at  least  seven  well-defined  substances  in- 
cluded in  the  class  geine.  Two  of  these  are  indifferent  in  their 
relations,  viz. :  ulmin  and  humin  ;  five  exhibit  acid  proper- 
ties, these  are  the  ulmic,  humic,  geic,  crenic,  and  apocrenic 
acids.  These  seven  substances  are  compounds  of  carbon, 
with  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  in  proportions  just  sufficient  to 
form  water,  or  compounds  having  either  the  hydrogen  or 
the  oxygen  in  excess.  They  may  be  therefore  grouped  in 
three  sections. 

1st.  Carbon  and  water  form  humin  and  humic  acid. 

2d.  Carbon  and  water  with  hydrogen  in  excess,  form 
ulmin  and  ulmic  acid. 

3d.  Carbon  and  water  with  oxygen  in  excess,  form  geic, 
crenic,  and  apocrenic  acids. 

These  may  be  termed  the  neutral,  the  hydrogen,  and  the 
oxygen  groups. 

The  first  products  of  decay  are  ulmin  and  ulmic  acid.  By 
the  continued  absorption  of  oxygen  from  the  air,  humic  acid 


ORGANIC   ELEMENTS   OF  SOIL.  73 

and  humin,  geic,  apocrenic,  and  crenic  acids  are  formed  in 
the  order  in  which  they  have  been  named.  Each  is  derived 
from  the  substance  immediately  preceding  it  in  the  list. 

The  ultimate  product  of  their  decay  is  carbonic  acid  and 
water. 

The  acids  of  geine  easily  and  rapidly  absorb  ammonia 
and  water.  They  also  chemically  combine  with  water  and 
ammonia. 

They  are  seldom  found  free  in  soil,  ana  so  energetic  is 
the  affinity  between  crenic  and  apocrenic  acid  and  ammonia, 
that  these  have  been  considered  as  essentially  different  from 
ulmic,  humic  and  geic  acids.  These  contain  carbon,  hydro- 
gen and  oxygen,  while  crenic  and  apocrenic  acid  were  sup- 
posed to  contain  in  addition,  nitrogen.  Hence,  a  distinction 
was  pointed  out  in  the  last  edition  of  this  work,  in  which 
geine  was  divided  into  nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous. 

The  progress  of  discovery  has  shown  that  crenic  and  apo- 
crenic acid  may  be  derived  from  geic  acid,  free  from  nitrogen. 

102.  Still  there  are  wide  differences  in  the  relations  of 
these  several  substances.  The  most  easily  marked  charac- 
teristic is,  that  some  are  easily,  others  difficultly  soluble  in 
water,  and  others  are  insoluble  in  this  element. 

The  relations  of  the  acids  and  neutral  substances  of  geine 
to  alkalies,  is  also  remarkable.  All  the  geine  acids  readily 
dissolve  in  carbonated  or  caustic  alkali ;  in  either  of  which 
the  neutral  geine  substances  are  wholly  insoluble. 

Of  the  dissolved  acids,  three  are  precipitable  and  two  not 
precipitable  by  acids.  Hence,  we  have  two  divisions  of 
geine  founded  on  their  relations  to  alkali  and  water;  1st, 
soluble,  and  2d,  insoluble.  The  insoluble  substances  are 
ulmin  and  humin.  The  soluble  substances  are  all  acid,  and 
these  may  be  still  further  distinguished  by  their  relations  to 
acid. 

4 


74  ORGANIC   ELEMENTS  OF  SOIL. 

First.  Those  which  arc  soluble  and  precipitable  by  acid, 
viz. :  ulmic,  humic,  geic  acids. 

Secondly.  Those  which  are  not  precipitated  by  acid,  viz. : 
crenic  and  apocrenic  acids. 

In  consequence  of  the  ammoniacal  combinations  with  the 
acids,  these  are  usually  found  in  water  drained  from  soil. 
Hence,  long  before  the  existence  of  crenic  and  apocrenic 
acid  was  suspected,  the  substance  given  up  by  soil  to  water 
was  called  extract  of  mould  ;  the  substance  dissolved  by 
alkali  wat  called  humic  acid,  from,  humus,  the  Latin  for  soil, 
or  mould  These  several  substances  are  convertible.  The 
insoluble  becomes  soluble,  the  difficultly  soluble  in  water 
becomes  easily  soluble  by  air  and  moisture.  Ulmic,  humic, 
and  geic  acids  are  seldom,  and  crenic  and  apocrenic  acids  are 
never  found  free  in  soil.  Hence,  in  soil,  no  less  than  five 
separate  and  distinct  salts  of  any  one  base  may  be  found, 
but  generally  the  salts  are  chemical  combinations  of  several 
bases  with  each  acid,  which  compound  salts  are  soluble, 
though  singly  some  may  be  insoluble  in  water.  These 
compound  salts  minister  to  vegetation  in  various  ways. 

103.  Great  difference  of  opinion  has  prevailed  respecting 
the  real  constitution  and  uses  of  the  substances  of  the  class 
geine.  It  is  practically  useful  to  discuss  the  question, 
whether  plants  draw  their  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitro- 
gen, from  the  air,  or  from  the  soil.  The  nourishment  drawn 
from  air,  depends  on  the  great  physical  elements,  air,  tempe- 
rature, moisture.  Agriculture  may  not  control  these.  It 
can  palliate  them  only  by  controlling  that  within  its  power, 
the  state  of  the  soil.  With  all  above  ground,  the  farmer 
has  little  concern.  If  plants  are  nourished  chiefly  from  the 
air,  it  is  evident  that  the  farmer  is  concerned  only  to  pro- 
duce that  state  of  the  development  of  the  organs  of  plants, 
best  adapted  to  the  aspiration  of  the  aerial  elements.  This 


GEINE.  75 

state  is  influenced  chiefly  by  the  soil.     There  is  the  farmer's 
true  field  of  action. 

104.  Differ  as  opinions  may  about  the  ultimate  chemical 
constitution,  and  the  mode  of  action  of  geine,  whether  by 
being  taken  up  as  a  solution  of  geine,  and  of  its  compounds 
with  the  earths  and  metals,  called  geine  compounds,  or  only 
as  a  source  of  carbonic  acid,  the  great  practical  lesson  of  all 
agricultural  experience  teaches  that  geine  is  essential  to  the 
growth  and  perfection  of  seed,  that  without  geine  crops  are 
not  raised.     Geine  is  as  essential  to  plants  as  is  food  to  ani- 
mals.    So  far  as  nourishment  is  derived  from  the  soil,  geine 
is  the  food  of  plants.     It  may  be  laid  down  as  the  eighth 
principle  of  agricultural  chemistry,  GEINE,  IN  SOME  FORM,  is 

ESSENTIAL  TO  AGRICULTURE. 

105.  In  all  its  forms,  it  is  agriculturally  one  and  the  same 
thing.     They  are  all  included  in  the  terms  humus,  or  mould, 
or  geine.     Geine,  in  its  agricultural  sense,  is  a  generic  term. 
It  includes  all  the  decomposed  organic  matter  of  the  soil.    It 
concerns  the  farmer  less  to  know  the  ultimate  chemical  con- 
stitution, than  it  does  the  practical,  agricultural  value  of  a 
class  of  compounds  termed  geine.     Restricting  that  term  to 
the  definite  compound   which  chemists  have  called  humic 
acid,  an  account  of  its  relations  will  convey  a  full  idea  of 
whatever  other  organic  compounds  are  found  in  soil. 

In  describing  geine  thus  specifically,  the  properties  of  the 
whole  class  are  described  under  its  generic  name. 

106.  It  has  been  stated  already,  that  geine  is  the  product 
of  decomposition  of  bodies  once  endowed  with  life.     For 
the  present  purpose,  it  may  be  considered  as  the  result  of 
vegetable  decomposition. 

107«  Life,  and  the  manner  how  plants  grow,  may  not  be 
understood.  Growth  is  a  living  process.  Decay  is  a  chemi- 
cal process.  Its  laws  are  not  only  understood,  but  its  pro- 


76  GEINE. 

ducts  may  be  limited,  controlled,  hastened.  Decay  is  fer- 
mentation, and  this,  marked  by  its  several  stages,  ends  in 
putrefaction.  Putrefaction  is  the  silent  and  onward  march 
of  decay.  Its  goal  is  geine. 

108.  If  dry  vegetable  matters  are  soaked  in  water  that  is 
soon  discolored,  a  product  of  decomposition  is  obtained ;  its 
peculiar   character   is   solubility  in   water.     This   solution, 
being  exposed  to  air,  soon  becomes  filled  with  little  flocks, 
which  gradually  subside.     This  sediment  is  still  a  very  little 
soluble  in  water,  but  so  very  sparingly  that  it  may  be  said 
to  be  insoluble.     If  the  sediment  is  exposed  a  little  time  to 
air  it  regains  the  property  of  solubility  in  water,  is  easily 
dissolved  in  part,  by  potash  lye,  or  any  alkaline  lye,  whether 
caustic  or  mild. 

109.  The  original  brown  solution  may  be  considered  as 
extract  of  mould.      The  sediment  as  a  compound  of  the 
several  acids  of  geine  and  carbonaceous  mould.     These  are 
either  soluble  or  insoluble  in  water  or  alkali ;   and  hence, 
geine  is  divided  into  soluble  and  insoluble.     The  soluble  is 
dissolved  by  water,  by  alcohol,  by  alkalies.     The  insoluble 
cannot  be  dissolved  by  any  of  these  agents,  nor  by  acids. 
The  properties  of  geine,  in  water  and  alkali,  or  its  behavior, 
as  it  is  termed,  is  of  the  highest  importance  to  the  farmer, 
and  are  to  be  considered  in  detail. 

1 10.  The  first  and  earliest  product  of  decay,  is  that  which 
is  so  easily  soluble  in  water  (108).     If  it  could  be  at  once 
seized  upon,  it  would  be,  doubtless,  a  perfectly  colorless 
solution,  but  it  changes  to  a  brownish  color  by  exposure  to 
air.     This  character  is  very  common  in  solutions  of  organic 
matter.      It  is  due  in    this  case  to  the  formation  of  the 
insoluble  state. 

111.  If  a  little  alum  is  dissolved  in  the  watery  solution  of 
geine,  and  then  a  few  drops  of  spirits  of  hartshorn,  or  sal 


GEINE.  77 

volatile,  or  as  it  is  termed  by  chemists,  water  of  ammonia, 
are  added,  the  earth  alumina  will  be  'let  loose  from  the 
alum,  and  it  will  immediately  combine  with,  and  precipitate 
the  geinc,  that  is,  little  flocks  fall  down  gradually  in  the 
liquor.  Hence  is  derived  an  important  character.  Geine 
has  a  great  affinity  for  alumina.  If  lime  had  been  added  to 
the  solution  of  geine,  the  same  effect  would  have  followed. 
The  same  effect  would  be  produced  by  magnesia,  by  oxide 
of  iron,  and  by  manganese. 

112.  Alumina,  lime,  magnesia,  oxides  of  iron,  and  manga- 
nese, will,  therefore,  in  soil,  immediately  seize  upon  any  sol- 
uble geine,  and,  forming 'compounds  with  it,  detain  it  there. 
The  air  and  water  will  have  now  little  action  upon  it. 

113.  But  supposing  that  none  of  these  elements  (112)ai*e 
present  in  soil,  the  fact  stated  (110)  shows  that  all   soluble 
geine,  or  solution  of  extract  in  water,  soon  passes  to  a  mix- 
ture of  soluble  and  insoluble,  forming  a  dark  brown  powder. 
This  is  thus  withdrawn,  deep  in  the  soil,  from  the  immediate 
action  of  the  air,  and  undergoes  no  further  change.     It  may 
remain    unchanged   an    indefinite    time.      If  ploughed    up, 
exposed  anyhow  to  the  action  of  air  or  moisture,  it  again 
becomes  partly  soluble  in  water,  and  exhibits  its  former 
characters,  viz. :  great  affinity  for  earths  and  metallic  oxides. 
In  this  state  it  is  VEGETABLE  MOULD. 

114.  Vegetable  mould,  then,  is  a  mixture  of  the  organic 
and  inorganic  elements  of  soil.     It  is  a  compound  of  soluble 
geine  with  earths  and  metals,  mixed  with  soluble  and  insol- 
uble geine.     It   is  a   chemical    compound   of   organic  with 
inorganic  parts  of  soil,  mixed  with  a  large  portion  of  free 
organic  matter. 

115.  The  inorganic  elements  of  mould  are,  1st.  The  bases 
found  in  the  soil,  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  silicates, 
as  lime,  potash,  soda,  magnesia,  alumina,  iron,   &c.     2dly. 


78  GEATES. 

Those  which  already  had  existed  in  plants,  combined  with 
vegetable  acids.  These  last,  by  decomposition,  escape  as 
carbonic  acid,  or  in  acid  vapors  and  water,  while  the  bases, 
or  earths  and  oxides  with  which  they  were  combined, 
remain,  and  are  immediately  seized  upon  by  the  forming 
geine ;  while  the  uncombined  geine  passes  to  the  state  of  a 
brown  coal-like  powder. 

116.  The  properties  of  this  brown  powder  of  mould  are, 
1st.  Partial  solubility  in  water.     Cold  water  dissolves  only 
about   one  twenty-five-hundredth  part  of  its  weight,   hot 
•water  a  little  more.     2d.  It  is  a  perfectly  neutral  substance, 
exhibiting  neither  acid,  nor  alkaline  properties,  but  all  alka- 
lies develop  it  in  acid  properties.      In  this  state  it  is  termed 
geic  or  humic  acid.     It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  geic  or 
humic  acid  can  never  exist  free  in  soil,  so  long  as  free  bases 
are  there  present,  as  lime,  alumina,  iron,  &c.     It  is  produced 
by  the  action  of  alkaline  bases,  and  immediately  combines 
with  them,  forming  salts,  which  are  termed  geates. 

117.  A  third  property  of  the  brown  powder  of  mould  is, 
that  after  alkalies  have  acted  on  it,  and  developed  acid  prop- 
erties, its  solubility  in  water  is  considerably  increased,  while 
it  continues  in  a  moist  state.     If  dried,  in  this  acid  state,  it 
becomes  almost  insoluble  in  water. 

118.  The  geates  found  in  soil  have  the  following  charac- 
ters :    1st.  All  the  alkaline  geates  are  very  soluble  in  water. 
The  solution  is  of  a  brown  color,  according  to  its  strength, 
from  a  light  brown  to  a  deep  coffee  color,  or  almost  black  ; 
acids  precipitate  this  solution,  and  the  geine  falls  in  light 
brown  flocks,  exceedingly  bulky.      This  precipitate  may  be 
washed  in  water,  rendered  a  little  acid;  but  simple  water, 
in  consequence  of  the  great  solubility  of  geine,  developed 
by  its  combination  with  alkali,  will  dissolve  nearly  all  the 
precipitate. 


GEATES.  79 

3d.  Lime  water,  added  to  a  solution  of  an  alkaline  geate, 
forms  a  precipitate  of  geate  of  lime.  It  is  to  be  observed, 
that  a  cautious  and  gradual  addition  of  lime  water  forms  a 
precipitate,  which  immediately  re-dissolves.  This  is  soluble 
geate  of  lime.  It  requires  2000  parts  of  water  to  dissolve 
it,  being  a  very  little  more  soluble  than  geine  itself  and  only 
half  as  soluble  as  lime  alone.  An  excess  of  lime  water  pre- 
cipitates all  the  geine  as  insoluble  geate.  of  lime.  The  prop- 
erties of  this  insoluble  geate  of  lime,  are, 

119.  1st.  Almost  perfect  insolubility  in  water  and  alka- 
lies. 

3d.  Decomposable  by  alkalies. 

120.  Geate  of  magnesia  is  easily  sohvble  in  water.     It  is 
the  most  soluble  of  all  the  earthy  geates.     It  requires  only 
160  parts  of  water  to  dissolve  one  of  geate  of  magnesia. 
It  is  decomposable  by  alkalies,  and  then   both  acid  and  base 
;ire   dissolved.      The  geates  of  lime  and  magnesia,  when 
exposed  to  air,  absorb  carbonic  acid  ;  a  salt  is  formed,  con- 
taining an  excess  of  geine,  that  is,  the  carbonic  acid  unites 
with  a  part  of  the  lime.     These   super-geates,   as  they  are 
termed,   are  always  much  more  soluble   than  the  neutral 
geates. 

121.  Geate  of  alumina  is  soluble  in  water,  and  in  alkali, 
without  decomposition.     It  requires  4200  parts  of  water  to 
dissolve  it,  but  is  abundantly  soluble  in  alkali. 

122.  Geate  of  iron  requires  2300  parts  of  water  to  dis- 
solve it.     Like  geate  of  alumina,  it  dissolves  easily  in  alka- 
line carbonates. 

123.  Geate  of  manganese  requires  1450  parts  of  water  tc 
dissolve  it,  and  though  soluble  in  ammonia,  is  insoluble  in 
potash  or  soda. 

124.  The  properties  of  the  geates  are  of  the  highest  prac- 
tical importance.     The  three  earths,  lime,  magnesia,  and 


80  QKATE8. 

alumina,  are  universal  constituents  of  soil,  and  the  two  first 
are  constantly  present  in  plants.  In  their  relation  to  geine, 
these  all  combine  with  that,  they  all  form  soluble  compounds 
in  the  moist  state,  but  after  having  been  thoroughly  dried, 
these  geates  are  insoluble,  even  sun  baking  diminishes  their 
solubility.  In  this  dried  state,  they  are  earthy  powders,  and 
have  long  been  mistaken  for  earthy  portions  of  soil.  The 
fact  that  lime  and  magnesia  form  super-salts  (120),  may 
help  to  explain  why  the  free  use  of  lime  may  often  require 
a  long  time  to  develop  any  beneficial  effects.  At  first,  its 
action  renders  the  geine  insoluble ;  and  it  is  only  when,  by 
exposure,  the  lime  is  changed  in  part  to  a  carbonate,  and 
thus  rendered  inert,  that  a  super-geate  of  lime,  which  is  very 
soluble,  forms  and  begins  to  show  its  effects  upon  vegetation. 
The  easy  decomposition  of  geate  of  lime,  by  alkaline  car- 
bouates,  teaches  also,  that  if  to  geate  of  lime  is  added  an 
alkaline  carbonate,  the  geine  may  be  dissoluble,  and  brought 
into  use.  It  is  probable,  that  when  land  has  been  over- 
limed,  the  evil  can  be  corrected  only  by  the  use  of  ashes. 
The  carbonate  of  lime  will  act  on  the  silicates,  as  will  be 
hereafter  shown. 

125.  The  properties  and  relations  of  geine  with  water,  are 
also  of  the  highest  agricultural  value  (116).  The  great  in- 
solubility shows  at  once  how  small  must  be  the  amount  of 
this  portion  of  soil,  which  can  be  ever  removed  by  drainage 
or  filtration,  by  floo'd,  or  rain,  and  that,  in  the  practice  of 
irrigation,  very  little  effect  can  be  due  to  the  solvent  power 
of  water  on  geine.  Its  almost  total  insolubility,  seems  a 
wise  provision  of  a  far-reaching  Providence,  that  an  element 
of  soil,  which  has  been  and  can  be  produced  by  the  decay 
of  organic  bodies  only,  and  chiefly  by  plants  on  the  earth's 
surface,  should  not  be  borne  away  by  the  first  falling 
shower. 


CRENIC   AND   APOCRENIC    ACID.  81 

126.  Not  less  important  to  the  farmer  are  the  relations  of 
geine  to -alkalies,  its  solubility  is  wonderfully  increased  by 
their  action  ;  this  is  a  most  valuable,  because  available  prop- 
erty ;  it  allows  the  farmer  to  bring  into  use.  by  the  applica- 
tion of  alkalies,  the  geine,  which,  in  its  insoluble  state,  is 
quite  valueless.  This  remarkable  property  is  not  confined 
to  that  portion  of  geine  which,  it  may  be  supposed,  is  chem- 
ically combined  with  alkali.  Alkali,  by  the  mere  action  of 
presence,  by  its  catalytic  action,  which  will  be  hereafter  ex- 
plained, renders  an  indefinite,  but  large  quantity  of  geine 
soluble  in  water.  This  is  a  principle  of  high  practical  value, 
and  were  the  results  of  the  principles  detailed  in  the  fore- 
going pages  to  terminate  in  this  fact,  that  alone  rightly  pon- 
dered, would  account  for  a  vast  number  of  facts  in  vegetable 
physiology,  and  lead  to  new  views  in  the  pursuit  of  agricul- 
ture, not  less  important  than  practical. 

The  organic  matter  of  soil  contains  within  itself  the  ele- 
ment of  its  own  partial  solution,  that  is,  ammonia.  This  is 
generally  combined,  as  has  been  shown  (101),  with  crenic 
and  apocrenic  acids.  Of  the  seven  organic  matters  found  in 
soil,  these  acids  compose  the  smallest  proportion.  Their 
importance,  however,  is  in  the  inverse  ratio  to  their  quan- 
tity. Their  properties  require  a  distinct  account,  allied  as 
*hey  are,  for  the  most  part,  to  those  of  the  other  geine  acids. 

Crenic  and  apocrenic  acids  are  many-based  acids  ;  that  is, 
they  saturate  several  proportions  of  one  base,  or  one  pro- 
portion of  several  bases  at  once. 

Crenic  acid  saturates  four,  and  apocrenic  acid  five  equiva- 
lents of  bases.  Compound  salts  are  thus  formed  by  these 
acids,  with  the  various  alkaline,  earthy  and  metallic  bases 
found  in  the  soil.  Thus,  one  proportion  of  apocrenic  acid 
may  be  found  with  one  of  ammonia,  one  of  potash,  one  of 
lime,  one  of  iron,  one  of  magnesia.  These,  by  their  union, . 
4* 


SOURCES  OF   APOCKENATKS. 

though  in  part  insoluble,  form  a  compound  soluble  salt. 
These  double  salts  are,  therefore,  those  which  the  plants 
chiefly  abstract  from  the  soil.  Hence,  that  there  may  be,  as 
there  must  be  in  fertile  soil,  a  continued  supply  of  these 
salts,  nature  has  provided  constant  sources  of  their  repro- 
duction. The  sources  are  two-fold.  This  is  a  point  of  too 
much  importance  to  be  passed  by  without  fuller  elucidation. 

It  has  been  stated  (100)  that  the  union  of  hydrogen  and 
nitrogen  forms  ammonia.  This  alkali,  by  the  action  of  the 
oxygen  of  the  air,  becomes  nitric  acid.  These  are  the  facts. 
Ammonia  in  air,  in  contact  with  porous  or  decaying  matters, 
becomes  aqua  fortis.  Moist  decaying  substances  induce  the 
nitrogen  of  air  inclosed  in  their  pores,  to  become  first  ammo- 
nia, and  then  an  acid.  There  is  then  a  constant  formation 
more  or  less,  according  to  circumstances,  of  nitric  acid  in 
the  transformation  of  geine.  What  now  becomes  of  this 
nitric  acid  1  It  forms  either  nitrates  or  apocrenates. 

If  abundant  alkaline,  bases  are  present,  as  potash,  soda, 
lime,  magnesia,  the  nitric  acid  unites  with  these,  one  or  all? 
according  to  quantity  and  varieties  of  saltpetre — that  is, 
nitrates  result.  If  alkaline  bases  are  absent,  then  nitric  acid 
converts  humic  acid  into  apocrenic  acid  and  ammonia,  itself 
furnishing  the  nitrogen  for  that  alkaline  base.  The  kind  of 
change  need  not  be  detailed,  or  here  illustrated.  It  is  enough 
to  state,  that  nitric  acid  and  humic  acid,  by  their  mutual 
reactions,  produce  apocrenate  of  ammonia,  water,  and  car- 
bonic acid.  This  is  one  source  of  the  reproduction  of  apo- 
crenate. 

A  second  source  is  found  in  an  abundance  of  decay- 
ing organic  matter  in  soil.  Ammonia  is  here  copiously 
produced,  but  not  a  corresponding  proportion  of  nitric  acid, 
for  the  oxygen  of  the  air  essential  to  this  change,  is  seized 
by  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  of  decaying  matter. 


FORMATION    OF  NITRATES.  83 

Where  then  there  is  abundance  of  organic  matter  without 
alkaline  bases,  there  is  also  fully  evolved  ammonia  and 
apocrenic  acid,  and  apocrenates  result.  Where,  on  the  con- 
trary, little  organic  matter  and  abundance  of  alkaline  bases 
are  present,  there  the  ammonia,  both  of  the  air  and  of  the 
decaying  body,  is  converted  to  nitric  acid,  and  nitrates  re- 
sult. If  the  nitric  acid  which  is  produced,  meets  with  humate 
of  ammonia,  the  acid  is  decomposed  into  apocrenic  and 
ammonia,  while  the  ammonia  of  the  humate  is  transferred 
to  other  portions  of  geine  acid,  always  forming  in  the  soil. 

The  crenic  and  apocrenic  acid  are  mutually  convertible, 
but  with  very  different  results.  Freely  exposed  to  air,  oxy- 
gen is  absorbed  by  crenic  acid  ;  apocrenic  acid  and  water 
result.  While  apocrenic  acid  by  nitric  acid  is  changed  to 
crenic  and  carbonic  acid. 

All  these  changes  are  worthy  of  study.  The  ultimate  re- 
sults of  all  are  the  formation  of  water  and  carbonic  acid. 
The  intermediate  products  are  ammonia  and  nitrates,  and 
soluble  salts  of  the  bases  in  soil,  essential  to  the  growth  of 
plants. 

Here  then  is  at  once  opened  to  view  the  necessity  of  the 
presence  of  geine  in  soil.  No  practical  farmer  ever  had 
other  opinion  than  this,  that  decaying  vegetable  matter  in 
soil,  matter  in  an  active  state  of  decay,  is  essential  to  a 
good  crop.  It  is  the  experience  of  ages,  the  result  of  observ- 
ation and  experiment  from  the  remotest  times.  Though,  in 
the  conflict  of  opinion,  attempts  have  been  made  to  set  aside 
this  experience  and  practice,  it  may  be  assumed  that  science 
has  now  shown  the  specific  grounds  of  this  universal  belief. 

127.  Hitherto  the  action  of  geine  on  soil  only,  has  been 
considered,  and  its  chemical  composition  pointed  out,  suf- 
ficiently for  all  practical  purposes.  The  chemical  proportion 
of  the  elements  of  geine  is  unconnected  with  the  practical 


84  GEINE   IN   POOR  SOIL. 

question,  how  far  it  is  essential  to  plants.  The  fact  that  A\& 
most  barren  soil  contains  these  elements  in  vast  quantity, 
that  exhausted  land  is  nearly  equally  rich  in  these,  as  is  the 
highly-productive,  has  been  overlooked.  The  amount  of 
nitrogen  in  geine,  even  in  exhausted  soil,  is  sufficient  to  sup- 
ply that  element  to  several  crops  of  grain.  The  amount  of 
carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen  and  nitrogen,  in  a  poor,  sandy, 
barren  soil,  has  been  proved,  by  chemical  analysis,  to  be 
not  less  than  thirty -four  tons  per  acre,  taking  the  soil  at  only 
a  foot  in  depth.  If  the  light  of  modern  chemistry  shall 
hereafter  teach  that  these  are  never  taken  from  the  geine  of 
soil,  it  will  teach  also  what  the  true  action  of  geine  is.  If 
no  approach  to  the  solution  of  this  important  question  has 
yet  been  made,  still,  the  absolute  necessity  of  geine  in  soil  is 
admitted  by  all  practical  men. 

Some  further  attempt  to  explain  this  subject  will  be  made 
in  the  next  chapter,  and  the  following  appendix  may  be 
omitted  by  those  to  whom  practical  results  are  of  more 
value  than  philosophy.  It  is  hoped,  however,  that  the  new 
and  important  analyses,  contained  in  tllrs  appendix,  will 
amply  repay  the  labor  of  studying  their  results,  for  the  first 
time  laid  before  the  American  farmer,  in  the  second  edition 
of  this  work. 


APPENDIX  TO  CHAPTER   IV. 

HISTORY    OF    GEINE. 

SOME  account  of  the  chemical  history  of  a  substance  which 
has  caused  no  little  discussion  in  late  agricultural  reports 
and  publications,  may  not  be  here  misplaced.  It  may  tend 
to  soften  the  doubts  of  those  who  are,  and  with  reason  apt 
to  mistrust  the  utility  of  a  substance,  upon  whose  chemical 
nature  there  is  such  an  apparent  difference  of  opinion.  If 
farmers  are  to  wait  till  doctors  agree,  there  will  be  no  har- 
vest. Happily  this  discussion  is  in  nowise  connected  with 
the  practical  application  of  geine.  It  is  a  difference  about 
names,  not  things.  In  1797,  Vauquelin,  a  distinguished 
French  chemist,  gave  an  account  of  a  substance  which  had 
exuded  from  the  bark  of  an  elm  tree.  It  was  a  shining, 
brittle,  black  substance,  insoluble  in  alcohol,  soluble  in  kot 
water,  with  a  brown  color,  and  contained  potash. 

In  1802,  Klaproth,  a  Swedish  analyst,  received  from 
Palermo  a  specimen  of  this  elm  gum,  and  found  it  con- 
tained a  portion  of  resinous  matter,  and  confirmed  Vauque- 
lin's  observations.  In  1810,  Berzelius,  the  most  acute 
chemist  of  the  age,  in  experimenting  on  the  barks  of  various 
trees,  noticed  products  similar  to  the  elm  gum,  particularly 
in  pine  bark,  Peruvian  bark,  and  especially  in  the  elm, 
whose  properties  will  be  presently  mentioned  ;  but  he  not 
only  gave  these  products  no  name,  but  pointed  out  marked 
differences  between  them.  The  substance  found  in  pine  is 

(S&) 


86  HISTORY    OF   GEIXE. 

allied  to  what  is  called  pectic  acid,  that  in  Peruvian  bark 
approaches  starch,  while  that  from  the  elm  is  only  a  variety 
of  vegetable  mucilage. 

In  1812,  James  Smithson,  an  English  chemist,  and  the 
munificent  founder  of  the  "Institute  "  which  bears  his  name, 
gave  to  the  Royal  Society  of  London  an  account  of  his  ex- 
periments on  elm  gum,  which  he  had  received  from  the  same 
place  and  person  who  originally  sent  the  article  to  Klaproth. 
Smithson  thought  the  substance  more  allied  to  extractive 
matter,  than  to  resin,  and  noticed  that  it  contained  20  per 
cent,  of  potash.  A  similar  substance  obtained  from  the 
exudation  of  an  English  elm,  contained  a  larger  per  centage 
of  potash,  but  no  trace  of  this  new  substance  was  detected 
in  elm  sap. 

In  1813,  Dr.  Thomas  Thomson,  the  Coryphaeus  of  British 
chemists,  experimented  on  this  elm  gum  in  its  several  varie- 
ties, and  embracing  the  prevalent  opinion  of  its  distinct 
nature,  not,  however,  because  prevalent,  but  from  his  own 
researches,  erected  it  into  a  distinct  vegetable  principle, 
under  the  name  of  ULMIN,  from  ulmvs,  the  Latin  for  elm. 
He  confounded  under  this  name  the  several  products  noticed 
by  Berzelius,  in  bark  ;  and  hence,  thinks  there  are  several 
varieties  of  this  substance,  though  Berzelius  does  not  counte- 
nance this  idea.  Thomson  was  the  first  who  ever  procured 
ulrnin  pure,  but  this  was  not  the  elm  mucilage,  but  tho 
extractive  matter,  and  he  thus  gave  the  name  ulmin  to  the 
apotheme  of  Berzelius. 

Not  long  after  this  name  had  become  the  property  of 
chemists,  Braconnot  found,  in  experimenting  on  the  action 
of  alkali  on  woody  fibre,  that  a  substance  was  produced 
analogous  to  elm  gum  and  the  varieties  of  ulmin,  and,  in 
1830,  Boullay  noticed  that  ulmin  had  acid  properties,  and 
gave  to  it  the  name  of  ULMIC  ACID. 


HISTOliY    OF   GEIXE.  87 

The  properties  and  relations  of  ulmin  and  of  ulmic  acid, 
now  engaged  the  attention  of  many  expert  chemists.  It  was 
found  to  be  the  product  of  a  great  many  vegetable  decompo- 
sitions by  various  agents,  by  alkali,  by  acids,  earths,  oxides, 
by  fire,  by  water.  All  these  hasten  the  process  of  decay. 
As  a  general  law,  it  may  be  stated  that  all  substances  oxi- 
dating, and  gently  acting  on  organic  matter,  produce  ulmin. 
Hence,  it  was  found  in  a  vast  variety  of  substances,  and 
even  cast-iron  was  found  to  contain  about  2  per  cent,  of  a 
compound  so  analogous  to  ulmin,  that  it  is  so  called.  But, 
above  all,  it  was  found  to  be  the  great  product  of  spontane- 
ous decay  of  plants,  and  hence  existed  abundantly  in  peat 
and  soil.  Sprengel.  directing  his  attention  particularly  to 
its  existence  in  soil  before  that  form  of  it  was  universally 
allowed  to  be  identical  with  ulmin  and  ulmic  acid,  bestowed 
on  it  the  name  of  humic  acid,  from  the  Latin,  humus,  or 
mould.  Sprengel  investigated  minutely  the  various  salts  of 
this  substance,  and  first  endeavored  to  determine  its  chemi- 
cal constituents. 

Boullay  soon  followed  in  the  same  path  of  investigation, 
and  with  almost  similar  results.  There  were  marked  differ- 
ences between  all  the  forms  yet  observed,  that  is,  between 
elm  gum  of  Palermo,  the  product  of  bark,  the  artificial 
ulmin  of  Braconnot,  and  that  of  soil.  A  multitude  of  dif- 
ferent but  analogous  substances  were  confounded  under  a 
common  name,  which  began  to  be  applied  to  the  matter  of 
all  vegetables,  which,  after  having  been  treated  with  alcohol 
and  water,  yielded  to  alkali  a  solution  precipitable  in  brown 
flocks,  by  an  acid.  Under  these  circumstances,  Berzelius 
objected  to  the  term  altogether,  and  if  there  is  a  substance 
to  which  he  would  apply  the  name  ulmin,  it  is  to  the  mucil- 
age of  elm.  As  this  has  been  the  source  of  no  small  confu- 
sion, an  account  of  it  may  be  here  introduced.  Elm  bark 


88  HISTORY   OF   GE1NE. 

is  treated  with  alcohol.  The  tincture  is  evaporated  dry,  and 
the  extract  treated  with  water,  which  dissolves  a  brown  ex- 
tractive matter,  leaves  an  insoluble  residue,  which  being 
treated  with  ether,  leaves  a  small  quantity  of  ft  brownish 
matter,  analogous  to  the  extractive  of  chemists,  or  the 
brown  apotheme  of  Berzelius.  The  sap  of  elm  contains 
acetate  and  carbonate  of  potash.  Here,  then,  are  all  the 
elements  of  elrn  gum,  as  examined  by  Vauquelin,  Klaproth, 
Smithson,  Thomson.  Not  only  the  elm,  but  other  trees, 
under  diseased  action,  exude  these  matters,  and  under  the 
influence  of  air,  and  the  potash,  the  diseased  exudation  from 
the  elm  bark  is  changed  to  true  ulmic  acid,  which  unites 
with  the  potash,  and  both  with  the  mucilage.  The  mucilage 
may,  by  processes  not  here  necessary  to  be  detailed,  be  pro- 
cured pure,  as  a  hard,  opaque,  colorless,  insipid,  and  inodor- 
ous gum.  It  moistens  easily,  swells  in  water,  becoming  a 
semi-transparent  mucilage.  It  is  insoluble  in  alkali,  affords 
no  ammonia  by  dry  distillation.  Boiled  with  alkaline  lye, 
it  affords  a  clear  mucilaginous  liquor,  which  browns  by  being 
exposed  to  air.  If  this  lye  or  solution  is  exactly  neutralizt-d 
by  acetic  acid,  lime  water  and  salts  of  lime  produce  no  pre- 
cipitate in  it,  and  it  is  only  rendered  slightly  turbid  by  sul- 
phuric, nitric  and  muriatic  acids.  It  is  not  precipitated  by 
acetate  of  lead,  nor  by  sulphate  of  iron.  With  alcohol  and 
sub-acetate  of  lead  it  affords  a  mucilaginous  precipitate.  It 
is  evident  that  it  differs  widely  from  artificial  ulmin,  and 
from  ulmin  of  soil,  and,  therefore,  when  Berzelius  turned  his 
attention  to  that,  having  advised  the  abandonment  of  the 
name  ulmin,  as  inapplicable  to  any  one  substance,  he 
bestowed  on  the  ulmin  of  soil  the  name  of  OEIXE,  from  the 
Greek  /??,  earth.  If  a  distinction  is  therefore  to  be  main- 
tained, it  may  be  said  that  ulmin  is  the  product  of  life; 
geine,  of  decay. 


HISTORY   OF    GEINE.  89 

The  mass  of  matter  called  mould  or  humus,  has  many 
analogies  with  the  artificial  ulmin  of  authors,  but  taken  as  a 
whole,  there  are  decided  differences.  These  were  noticed  by 
Berzelius,  and  hence  he  divided,  in  an  edition  of  his  chemist- 
ry (French  translation  of  1832),  the  constituents  of  the 
organic  part  of  mould  or  humus,  into, 

1st.  Extract  of  mould.  2ch  Geine.  3d.  Carbonaceous 
mould,  or  coal  of  humus,  as  it  is  often  termed.  He  noticed 
that  these  mutually  passed  into  each  other.  This  shows  a 
great  similarity  if  not  identity  of  chemical  constituents. 
He  did  not  pretend  to  determine  that,  but  by  his  citing,  in 
order  to  determine  the  elements  of  his  No.  2,  or  geine,  the 
analysis  by  Sprengel  of  humic  acid,  and  of  that  of  ulmic 
acid  by  Boullay,  it  is  evident  that  he  considered  his  geine 
identical  with  their  humic  and  ulmic  acids  ;  but  still  he  con- 
sidered new  researches  to  be  necessary  to  determine  accu- 
rately the  composition  of  either.  Later  experiments  have 
proved  the  perfect  identity  of  geine,  and  of  humic  acid,  and 
hence,  Berzelius  has  withdrawn  the  name  geine,  and  returned 
to  that  of  humic  acid,  the  usual  term  applied  to  the  organic 
acid  of  soil.  He  could  not,  consistently,  have  gone  back  a 
step  further,  and  substituted  ulmin  for  geine,  particularly 
after  he  was  violently  attacked  by  Raspail,  for  abandoning 
that  ancient  and  much  abused  name. 

The  great  distinction  pointed  out  by  Berzelius,  in  his  three 
varieties  of  mould,  was  founded  on  their  solubility  or  insol- 
ubility, by  water  and  by  alkalies.  The  author  of  these 
pages,  while  engaged  in  researches  upon  the  action  of  mor- 
dants, and  of  cow-dung,  in  calico  printing,  began  in  1833, 
before  he  had  met  with  the  work  of  Berzelius,  had  also 
noticed  this  marked  distinction,  and  several  other  new  and 
important  facts,  relating  to  what  he  then  called,  from  its 
analogies,  ulmin.  For  all  oractical  purposes,  the  distinction 


90  HISTORY   OF  GKINE. 

was  enough.  When,  a  few  years  after,  his  attention  was 
accidentally  called  to  soil,  the  name  of  Berzelius,  geine,  was 
given  by  him  to  the  whole  organic  matter  of  mould,  or 
humus,  and  that  matter  was  also,  as  a  convenient  practical 
division,  separated  into  soluble  and  insoluble,  including  the 
various  geic  salts  which  he  detected  in  soil.  In  the  edition 
of  Berzelius  above  cited,  twa  other  organic  compounds  are 
noticed,  as  being  among  the  general  products  of  putrefaction, 
traces  of  which  Berzelius  noticed  in  soil.  These  were  called 
crenic  and  apocrenic  acids,  from  "  krene"  Greek,  for  foun- 
tain, having  been  first  detected  in  spring  water. 

The  presence  of  nitrogen  was  detected  by  Berzelius,  in 
crenic  and  apocrenic  acid.  This  sufficiently  distinguished 
them  from  geine,  extract  of,  and  carbonaceous  mould.  Though 
these  acids  were  detected  after  the  name  of  geine  had  been 
applied,  yet  the  presence  of  nitrogen  in  these,  would  at 
once  have  led  Berzelius  to  examine  geine  anew,  if  he  had 
any  suspicion  that  it  contained  that  element,  or  that  he  had 
mistaken  the  chemical  nature  of  that  substance.  Unless  we 
suppose,  with  Raspail,  that  nitrogen  in  these  acids  exists  and 
acts  only  as  he  supposes  it  does  in  gluten,  as  an  accident,  or 
as  an  ammoniacal  salt,  it  cannot  be  supposed  that  geine  and 
these  acids  are  identical,  or  can  ever  pass  into  each  other. 
Nor  has  the  progress  of  chemical  discovery  led  to  the  aban- 
donment of  geine  as  a  distinct  principle.  The  whole  doc- 
trine of  naming  the  elements  of  soil  may  be  tabulated. 

TJIK  OROAMC  KLKMKXTS  OF  MOULD,    OR   ni'MfS,    BT   BnUWJfS'8   XCTBOD. 


ma. 

1840. 
1  .  Extract  of  mould,  ,.,.-,,. 

VrRrtalde     extract     of 

2  Geine  

Berzeliu*. 
Clmic  of   Roullay  and 

8.  Carbonaceous  mould,  
4.  Crenic  acid,  

f>.  Apocrenic  acid,  

3.  Hiiimn.  
4.  Orenic  acid,....  ) 
5.  Apocrrnic  acid.  ) 

Ldebig. 

t'lniin  of  authors,  sac- 
chulmin  of  Liebig. 
Admitted  by  most    au- 
thor*. 

HISTORY   OP   OBINE.  91 

It  becomes,  therefore,  a  question,  whether  the  term  geine 
is  not  the  only  proper  term  to  be  retained,  applicable  to  the 
various  forms  found  in  soil ;  and  its  distinction  into  soluble 
and  insoluble,  well  founded  for  all  practical  purposes.  This 
question  may  be  answered  by  a  reference  to  the  analysis  of 
geine.  Jt  includes  not  only  that,  so  called  in  1832  by  Ber- 
zelius,  the  equivalent  of  which,  by  the  table,  is  ulmic  and 
humic  acid,  but  also  all  the  forms.  On  this  subject,  during 
the  imperfect  state  of  organic  analysis  "ten  years  ago,  there 
may  have  been  room  for  doubt ;  especially  when  the  most 
consummate  organic  analyst  of  the  age,  Liebig,  asserts  that 
it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  estimate  quantities  less  than  one 
half  per  cent.  Even  now,  when  the  results  of  the  most  ex- 
pert analysts  have  thrown  a  shade  of  doubt  over  the  deter- 
mination of  the  true  proportion  of  carbon  in  carbonic  acid,  a 
proportion  for  so  many  years  considered  one  of  the  best 
established  facts  of  chemistry,  it  may  be  doubted  whether 
later  analyses  of  geine  approach  nearer  practical  truth  than 
those  executed  almost  in  the  infancy  of  the  science.  The 
constitution  of  geine,  as  determined  by  Boullay  and  Mala- 
guti,  admitted  by  all  to  be  worthy  of  confidence,  is  thus 
stated : — 

Carbon.        Hydrogen.  Oxygen. 

P.  Boullay,  (.Thomson)  56.7  4.8  38.50 

Jr.  (Lassaigne)      57.64         4.70         37.56 

Malaguti,  (Dumas)  57.48         4.76         37.06 

Average,  57.30         4.75         37.70 

But  it  may  be  said  that  these  refer  only  to  the  artificial 
productions.  These  may  be  quite  other  compounds  from 
that  found  in  the  soil.  Let  the  analysis  of  geine  of  soil,  as 
determined  by  the  latest  researches,  answer  such  objection. 

During  the  last  two  or  three  years.  Muldei   in  whose  ana- 


92  HISTORY  OF  QEINE. 

lytical  tact  chemists  generally  place  the  utmost  confidence, 
ha*  Examined  the  various  forms  of  geine.  He  has  now  pub- 
lished the  elaborate  results  of  his  long  labor.  The  follow- 
ing sketch  of  these,  which  shed  such  a  new  light  over  this 
complicated  subject,  is  chiefly  drawn  from  Berzelius's  Report 
for  1841,  in  which  he  speaks  of  them  in  high  praise.  While 
it  will  be  seen  that  Mulder  refers  to  the  various  forms  of 
geine,  under  names  used  by  Berzelius,  he  confirms  the  fact 
that  their  great  difference  depends  upon  their  being  soluble 
or  insoluble  in  alkalies,  and  has  added  a  crowd  of  new  facts, 
•which  connect  all  the  forms  in  a  beautiful  and  consistent 
manner.  Malaguti  had  procured,  by  boiling  sugar  with 
dilute  acid,  ulmic  acid  in  distinct  crystals.  By  long  boiling 
in  water,  it  is  converted  into  ulmin,  losing  its  solubility  in 
alkali  without  any  change  of  composition. 

Stein  had  already,  by  repeating  the  experiments  of  Mala- 
guti, arrived  at  products  whose  analytical  results  differed  from 
Malaguti's.  Mulder,  repeating  the  process  of  boiling  sugar 
•with  weak  acid,  and  examining  the  product,  has  confirmed 
Stein's  results,  and  also  what  has  been  advanced,  that  the 
forms  of  geine  thus  produced  are,  as  Malaguti  had  observed, 
identical  in  composition;  and  has  shown  that  the  various 
forms  depend  on  the  circumstances  of  the  manipulation. 

The  catalytic  action  of  weak  acid,  boiled  upon  sugar,  pro- 
duces first  ulmin,  and  ulmic  acid.  It  is  remarkable  that  these 
products  are  not  formed  in  vacuo.  This  is  due,  not  to  the 
want  of  oxygen,  but  to  the  want  of  pressure.  Boiled,  under 
the  pressure  of  hydrogen,  or  nitrogen  gas,  ulmin  and  its 
acid  are  produced.  The  products  formed  from  sugar  and 
weak  acids,  in  a  vacuum,  are  humin,  and  humic  acid.  Ulmin, 
and  ulmic  acid,  are  therefore  the  primary  products  of  this 
action  in  air  or  under  pressure.  If  these  are  separated  and 
again  boiled  with  weak  acid,  in  contact  with  air,  they  are 


HISTORY  OF  GEINE.  93 

changed  into  humin,  and  humic  acid.  These  are  therefore 
secondary  products.  Humin,  and  humic  acid,  are  produced 
directly,  by  allowing  a  free  and  abundant  access  of  air. 
Ulmin,  and  ulmic  acid,  are  then  rapidly  transformed  to 
humin,  and  humic  acid.  Strong  acid  also  hastens  this  trans- 
formation, but  at  the  same  time  changes  humic  acid  to 
humin.  Formic  acid  is  always  produced,  and  distils  off 
during  the  process ;  and  also  two  other  new  acids.  The 
discoverer  of  one,  was  Peligot,  in  1828,  which  Mulder  now 
calls  glucic  acid,  and  he  himself  has  added  another,  produced 
from  this,  which  is  called  apoglucic  acid.  Passing  over 
these,  it  is  difficult  to  procure  the  other  acids  and  neutral 
bodies  free  from  mixture.  Whatever  may  be  the  quantity 
of  sugar,  or  the  circumstances  of  the  manipulation,  it  is  im- 
possible to  convert  more  than  one-fifth  of  the  sugar  into 
ulmin,  and  humin,  and  humic  and  ulmic  acids.  The  other 
four-fifths  are  changed  into  formic,  glucic,  and  apoglucic 
acids. 

Having  effected  the  change  of  one-fifth  of  the  sugar,  the 
ulmic  and  humic  acids  are  separated  from  ulmin  and  humin 
by  potash.  Ammonia  cannot  be  used  for  this  purpose. 
The  reason  will  appear  in  the  sequel.  Having  separated 
the  several  substances,  their  analysis  presents  the  following 
results.  The  proportion  per  cent,  the  author  has  deduced 
for  the  greater  part  from  Mulder's  formulae.  What  a  chem- 
ical formula  is,  will  be  readily  understood  from  (55).  A 
formula  is  merely  the  true  expression  of  an  analysis  by  the 
number  of  combining  proportions.  It  presents  to  the  eye  at 
once  the  constitution  of  any  compound,  and  affords  a  readier 
mode  of  comparing  several  bodies  like -constituted,  than 
does  the  proportion  per  100  parts.  That  is  added  for  those 
whose  taste  may  have  led  them  to  omit  the  details  (55). 

But  it  may  here  be  stated   that  C  stands  for  carbon,  H 


94  HISTORY  OF  GEINE. 

hydrogen,  O  oxygen,  Am.  ammonia,  a  compound  of  3  hydro- 
gen and  1  nitrogen;  and  Aq.  stands  for  water  (aqua),  a 
compound  of  one  of  hydrogen  and  1  of  oxygen ;  2  aq.  is  2 
water. 

TABLE    OF    COMPOSITION    OF    ULMIN,    ETC. 


Per  100  parti. 

Formulae. 

Carbon. 

Hydrogen. 

Ozyyn. 

Ulmin, 

C40  H"  Ou 

65.30 

4.30 

30.40 

Ulmic  acid, 

C40  Hu  O11 

68.95 

4.23 

20.82 

Humin, 

C40  H"  O" 

64.67 

4.32 

31.01 

Humic  acid, 

C40  H"  O" 

69.25 

3.42 

27.33 

It  is  thus  seen  that  ulmic  and  humic  acids  differ  from 
ulmin  and  humin,  by  containing,  the  first,  two,  and  the 
second,  three,  atoms  of  the  elements  of  water  less  than  the 
neutral  bodies  from  which  they  are  formed.  The  ulmic  and 
humic  acids  above,  are  supposed  to  be  perfectly  dry.  Each 
may  combine  with  a  definite  proportion  of  water,  forming 
hydrated  acids.  In  this  case  they  contain  the  same  absolute 
and  relative  number  of  the  same  elements  as  do  ulmin  and 
humin.  They  are  thus  said  to  be  isomeric  with  them.  The 
composition  of  the  hydrated  acids  is — 

Ulmic,    C40  H14  O1*  -f-  2  aqua  or  2  hydrogen  and  2  oxygen. 
Humic,  C40  H"  O"  +  3  aqua  or  3  "3     " 

These  acids  combine  with  bases.  If  these  acids  are  dis- 
solved by  ammonia,  and  precipitated  by  an  acid,  they  fall 
combined  with  ammonia.  Ulmate  of  ammonia,  precipitated 
by  metallic  salts,  forms  double  salts  of  ammonia  and  a 
metallic  oxide.  The  composition  of  these  salts  of  ammonia 
is — 


HISTORY  OF   GEINK.  95 

Ulmate  of  ammonia,       C40  H14  O12  -f-  ammonia  -f-  2  aqua. 
Humate  "  C*°  H12  O1*  -f  ammonia  +  3  aqua. 

Or,  per  cent.  Carb.  Hyd.  Oxy.  Nitrog. 

Ulmate  of  ammonia,         64.75         5.06         26.22         3.97. 
Humate  64.58         4.22        27.46         3.74. 

Mulder,  having  thus  shown  the  composition  of  these  arti- 
ficial products,  proceeds  to  trace  similar  natural  products  in 
peat,  decayed  wood,  and  soil.  Here  his  labors  have  a  direct 
bearing  on  agriculture.  He  points  out  their  relation  with 
those  above  in  so  clear  and  masterly  a  manner,  that  it  is 
impossible  not  to  believe  that,  in  agriculture,  the  artificial 
and  natural  products  would  produce  like  effects.  In  the 
natural  formation  of  these  substances,  Mulder  remarks, 
generally,  that,  during  decay,  without  free  access  of  air, 
ulmin  and  ulmic  acid  are  formed,  as  in  peat  of  a  brown  color, 
while,  as  in  black  peats  with  free  access  of  air,  humin  and 
humic  acids  are  produced  from  the  primary  products.  This 
agrees  with  his  experiments  in  air,  and  a  vacuum.  Peat,  of 
a  brown  color,  having  been  treated  with  alcohol,  to  remove 
all  resinous  matter,  was  then  treated  with  carbonate  of  soda. 
All  the  soluble  matter  was  thus  extracted,  that  is,  the  ulmic 
acid.  The  insoluble  geine  is  ulmin.  The  soluble,  precipi- 
tated, has  all  the  characters  of  the  ulmic  acid  of  sugar.  It 
differs  only  in  this,  it  may  not  be  heated  above  284°  Fah- 
renheit, without  decomposition,  and  then  produces  formic 
acid  and  water.  Sugar-ulmic  acid  undergoes  this  change  at 
383°  F.  Humic  acid  was  prepared  by  a  similar  process, 
from  black  peat.  It  has  all  the  external  characters  of  sugar- 
humic  acid.  It  differs  by  containing  ammonia.  Its  soda 
solution,  precipitated  by  muriatic  acid,  gave  a  precipitate 
containing  one  atom  of  humic  acid,  to  one  atom  of  ammonia. 
It  loses  no  water  at  284°  F. ;  at  about  365°  F.  it  evolves 


96  HISTORY   OF  OKIXK. 

ammonia;  at  383°  F.  acetic  acid.  Humic  acid  was  also 
prepared  from  the  black  mould  of  an  old  white  willow,  by 
a  similar  process  as  above.  It  suffers  no  change  below  302° 
F.,  and  at  325°  it  evolves  water  and  acetic  acid.  Digested 
with  caustic  potash,  it  evolves  ammonia.  Continuing  this 
digestion  for  twelve  hours,  and  then  precipitating  the  humic 
acid,  it  is  found  converted  into  ulmate  of  ammonia,  with  two 
portions  of  acid.  It  is  a  biulmate  of  ammonia,  similar  to 
that  from  peat.  If  digested  with  carbonate  of  soda,  the 
product  then  is  biulmate  of  ammonia,  like  that  from  sugar. 
Soil  was  treated  by  Mulder,  first,  with  boiling  alcohol,  then 
with  water,  then  with  carbonate  of  soda,  and  the  acids  pre- 
cipitated as  usual,  by  muriatic  acid.  These  precipitates  were 
with  difficulty  obtained  pure.  They  were  repeatedly  washed 
in  cold  water,  dried,  and  again  treated  with  alcohol,  to 
remove  every  trace  of  crenic  and  apocrenic  acid.  These 
being  removed,  the  precipitates  were  again  dried,  as  in  fact 
were  all  the  products  above  described  at  284°  F.  They 
were  then  analyzed.  It  is  remarkable  that  all  these  pro- 
ducts are  ammoniacal  combinations.  It  is  a  combination, 
not  as  a  salt,  in  which  case  the  geine  of  soil  would  be  at  once 
soluble  in  water,  but  a  compound  of  humin  and  ulmin,  or 
of  their  acids  with  ammonia,  probably  like  the  compounds 
of  ammonia  with  sulphates  and  other  salts.  The  whole  may 
be  best  presented  in  a  table,  and  that  these  natural  may  be 
at  once  compared  with  the  artificial  products,  these  are  also 
included 


HISTORY  OF  GEINE.  97 


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HISTORY   OF  GEINE.  99 

These  are  beautiful  and  valuable  results.  Executed  by 
one  of  the  great  masters  in  organic  analysis,  they  show  a 
wonderful  coincidence  between  the  artificial  and  natural 
products.  This  has  a  direct  connection  with  agriculture. 
The  source  of  the  nitrogen  of  plants  depends  upon  these 
compounds  of  ammonia  with  the  geine  of  soil.  The  compo- 
sition of  that  substance  shows  that,  by  making  it  soluble,  the 
farmer  commands  the  same  beneficial  effects  which  may  be 
produced  by  nitre.  But  the  researches  of  Mulder  do  not 
terminate  with  the  analyses.  He  has  examined  the  com- 
pounds which  these  forms  of  geine  produce  with  other  acids, 
particularly  with  muriatic  and  nitric.  The  compound  of 
nitric  and  humic  acids  is  called  nitro-humic  acid  ;  ulmin  and 
ulmic,  humin  and  humic  acid  are  decomposed  by  weak  nitric 
acid.  They  are  converted  by  gentle  heat  immediately  into 
a  rust-colored  powder,  and  by  prolonged  action  evolve  oxalic 
and  formic  acids  and  nitrate  of  ammonia.  Nitro-humic 
acid,  the  rusty  brown  powder  above,  is  soluble  in  water. 
Alkalies  evolve  ammonia  from  it.  Late  researches  have 
shown  that  this  compound  is  apocrenate  of  ammonia. 

It  is  highly  probable  that  this  product  is  connected  with  the 
action  of  nitrates,  or  saltpetre  in  agriculture.  All  these 
products,  observes  Berzelius,  are  connected  by  an  unknown 
thread.  These  black  and  almost  insoluble  acids,  have  a 
very  weak  saturating  power,  in  comparison  with  their  oxy- 
gen. This  last  exceeds  that  of  the  base,  by  10,  12,  or  14 
times.  Hence,  Berzelius  suggests  that  all  these  organic  acids 
may  have  a  composition  analogous  to  sulpho-benzoic  acid. 

Notwithstanding  the  objections  raised  by  Berzelius, 
founded  upon  a  want  of  correspondence  between  the  oxygen 
and  saturating  power  of  some  of  these  forms  of  geine,  they 
are  probably  modifications  of  one  principle,  differing  not  so 
much  in  their  physical  properties  as  do  fibrine,  albumen,  and 


100  HISTORY   OF  QEINE. 

caseine,  or  flesh,  white  of  egg,  and  curd  of  milk.  These  are 
identical  in  composition,  modifications  of  a  common  princi- 
ciple  to  which  the  name,  proteine,  i?  given  by  Mulder,  its 
discoverer.  It  is  not  among  the  least  curious  of  his  results 
that  proteine  is,  by  weak  acids,  changed  into  humate  of 
ammonia,  its  acid  being  perfectly  identical  with  that  from 
sugar.  In  1838,  Prof.  Hitchcock,  in  his  report,  published 
the  following  extract  from  one  of  the  author's  letters,  when 
speaking  of  geine  as  the  product  chiefly  of  vegetable  matter, 
it  was  added  :  "  Animal  substances  afford  a  similar  product, 
containing  nitrogen."  The  author  supposed  at  that  time  that 
the  nitrogen  in  geine  was  of  animal  origin ;  but  since  it  has 
been  proved  that  proteine  is  derived  from  vegetables,  the 
results  of  its  decomposition  by  Mulder,  leave  no  doubt  that 
the  proteine  of  vegetables  is  the  source  of  the  ammoniacal 
compounds  of  gciue  found  in  soil.  That  neither  Mulder  nor 
Berzelius  have  the  slightest  doubt  that  these  ammoniacal 
compounds  are  wholly  distinct  from  crenic  and  apocrenio 
acid,  is  evident  from  the  care  of  Mulder  to  separate  these 
last  from  the  soil,  and  from  the  total  silence  of  Berzelius 
respecting  any  mistake  he  may  have  been  supposed  to  com- 
mit, by  confounding  geine  with  them* 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  account  of  Mulder's  researches, 
that  geine  is  produced  chiefly  from  the  decay  of  woody 
fibre.  All  its  forms  are  thence  derived.  It  is  from  woody 
fibre,  by  the  absorption  of  oxygen,  by  the  access  of  air  and 
moisture,  that  ulmic  acid  is  first  formed,  and  from  this,  by 
absorption  of  another  portion  of  oxygen  proceeds  humic 
acid,  and  thus  also,  from  this  last  again  comes  geic  acid,  and 
thence  crenic,  which  by  still  a  further  change  becomes  npo- 
crenic  acid.  All  these  transformations  are  continually  occur- 
ring in  soil.  These  occur  not  without  the  production  of  car- 
bonic acid,  water  and  ammonia. 


CHAPTER  V. 

OF     THE     MUTUAL   ACTION    OF   THE     ORGANIC     AND     INORGANIC 

ELEMENTS    OF    SOIL. 

128.  IN  agriculture,  little  and  seemingly  unimportant  dis- 
coveries are  valuable.     Nothing  is  to   be  despised,  which 
may  lead  to  a  rational  and  true  theory  of  agriculture ;  this 
only  can  lead  to  successful  practice.     Practice,  founded  on 
sound  principles,  can  be  taught  only  by  a  knowledge  of  the 
manner  how  the  elements  of  soil  affect  each  other,  and  veg- 
etation.    This  knowledge  cannot  be  obtained  without  the 
application  of  theoretical  opinions.     The  opinions  of  merely 
scientific   men,    may    be    wholly   theoretical ;    but  what  is 
science  ] 

It  is,  says  Davy,  "  refined  common  sense,  the  substitution 
of  rational  practice,  for  unsound  prejudice." 

In  no  department  of  human  industry  is  there  so  great  a 
demand  for  the  union  of  theory  and  practice,  as  in  agricul- 
ture. The  book  farmer  and  the  practical  farmer,  must  now 
shake  hands.  They  have  been  too  long  wrestling,  and  trying 
to  get  each  other  down,  at  arm's  length,  and  now  grappling 
in  side  hug,  they  find  the  closer  the  embrace,  the  longer 
they  stand.  So  it  should  be ;  theory  and  practice  should 
mutually  support  each  other. 

129.  The  theoretical  and  the  practical  farmer  aim  at  one 
common  object.     The  latter  is  employing  certain  means  to 
effect  certain  ends ;  the  former  unfolds  the  laws  of  nature, 

(101) 


102  ACTION  OF   ELEMENTS  OF  SOIL. 

which  limit  and  control  the  operations  which  are  performed 
to  effect  that  end.  Theory  may  teach  a  rational  and  success- 
ful practice ;  this  last  may  lead  to  a  rational  theory.  But 
without  a  knowledge  of  the  elements  of  soil,  and  of  their 
mutual  action,  which  is  to  be  learned  from  chemistry  only, 
the  practical  application  of  science  to  agriculture  is  but  the 
dream  of  enthusiasts. 

130.  How  do   the    elements  of  soil   act?     The  answer 
involves  two  important  considerations.      1st.   The  mutual 
chemical  action  of  the  elements  of  soil,  their  organic  and 
inorganic  parts  on  each  other;  and  2d.  This  action,  as  influ- 
enced  and  modified   by  the   presence   of  living,  growing 
plants. 

131.  The  elements  of  soil  are  silicates,  salts  and  geinc. 
The  silicates,  as  such,  have  no  tendency  to  react  on  each 
other.     These  are  gradually  decomposed  by  the  action  of 
the  air.     The  great  agent  in  this  action  is  its  carbonic  acid, 
which  gradually  combines  with  the  alkaline  base  of  the  sili- 
cates, and  the  potash  and  soda  are  converted  into  soluble 
salts,  while  the  silex  and  alumina  remain. 

132.  The  result  of  this  action  is,  that  the  land  becomes 
gradually  more   clayey  and  tenacious;    while  the  alkaline 
bases,  carried  away  by  drainage  or  filtration,  enter  brooks 
and  rivers,  and  are  finally  found  in  sea  water.     The  potash 
of  the  ocean  arises  from  the  decomposition  of  rocks  and  soil. 
This  action,  though  very  marked  on  felspar,  is  comparatively 
nothing  except  on  the  naked  and  exposed  surface  of  rocks. 
Soil  suffers  but  little  from  this  cause.     The  silicates  of  soil 
may  be  considered  as  stationary. 

133.  Let  the  class,  salts,  be  now  introduced  into  the  soil ; 
of  these  the  earthy  carbonates  only  act  upon  silicates  by 
mutual  decomposition.     The  silicic  acid  acts  on  the  lime, 
forming  silicate  of  lime,  while  the  carbonic  acid,  now  let 


ACTION  OF  CARBONATES   IN  SOIL.  103 

loose,  acts  as  such  upon  other  silicates,  and  eliminates  or 
frees  the  alkaline  bases.  Let  it  be  supposed  that  there  is 
clay,  or  silicate  of  potash  and  alumina  in  the  soil.  Let  car- 
bonate of  lime,  that  is  marble,  or  air-slacked  lime,  shells, 
&c.,  be  added  to  the  soil.  The  result  is,  that  slowly  but 
surely,  chemical  action  takes  place,  the  silicic  acid  pulling 
one  away  and  the  carbonic  acid  another,  the  lime  is  changed 
to  silicate  of  lime,  and  the  carbonic  acid  escapes,  and  now  in 
its  turn  acts  upon  silicates  as  did  carbonic  acid  of  air.  The 
alumina  remains,  the  soil  becomes  more  clayey.  Thus  sands 
by  liming  are  amended. 

134.  This  principle,  of  the  action  of  carbonates,  unravels 
the  agency  of  a  vast  variety  of  substances,  which  appear  to 
be  very  inert  and  inefficient.     It  must  be  remembered,  that 
the  action  of  silicates  and  salts  is  alone  under  consideration, 
uninfluenced  by  the  presence  of  geine  or  plants.    That  action 
in  its  simplest  form  constitutes  the  following,  which  may  be 
laid  down  as  the  ninth  principle  of  agricultural  chemistry, 

CARBONIC  ACID,  AND  THE  CARBONATES,  DECOMPOSE  THE 
EARTHY,  ALKALINE,  AND  METALLIC  SILICATES  OF  SOIL. 

135.  The  result  of  this  action  is,  that  the  potash,  soda, 
lime,  magnesia,  alumina,  and  metallic  oxides  are  set  free, 
and  where  silicate  of  alumina  exists,  the  soil  becomes  more 
clayey,  while  the  carbonic  acid  again  acts  upon  silicates  ot 
alkalies  and   forms  carbonates  of  alkalies.     A  clue  is  thus 
given  to  the  action  of  peat  ashes,  or  coal  ashes  in  amending 
a  sandy  soil.     These  ashes  act  by  their  carbonate  of  lime  as 
above  stated,  freeing  the  alkali  of  the  silicate  of  potash. 

136.  Hitherto,  the  action  of  the  inorganic  elements  has 
been  explained,  uninfluenced  by  the  organic  or  by  geine. 
Referring  to  the  properties  of  this  substance,  it  will  be  recol- 
lected, that  it  is  soluble  or  insoluble,  that  it  combines  with 
alkalies,  earths,  and  metals.    It  exerts  a  twofold  action.    1st. 


104  ACTION   OF  CARBONATES   IN   SOIL. 

The  geine  combines  with  the  potash,  soda,  lime,  alumina, 
magnesia,  which  have  been  let  loose  by  the  action  of  carbonic 
acid,  and  of  carbonates,  and  forms  geic  salts  or  geates, 
while  the  carbonic  acid  which  may  be  let  loose  from  any 
carbonate  of  lime,  acting  upon  these  geic  salts,  forms  super- 
geates,  which  readily  dissolve.  It  is  thus  evident,  that  geine 
exerts  an  important  and  powerful  influence  upon  soil.  It  is 
the  agent,  prepared  by  nature,  to  dissolve  the  earthy  con- 
stituents of  soil,  rendering  them  so  soluble,  that  they  become 
fit  for  food,  or  constituents  of  plants. 

2d.  The  free  alkalies,  produced  as  has  been  described  by 
the  influence  of  carbonic  acid,  and  carbonates,  act  on  geine. 
They  render  this  soluble.  The  curious  and  important  fact, 
that  a  small  quantity  of  alkali  renders  an  indefinite  quantity 
of  geine  soluble,  has  been  noticed  (117);  and  it  may  now 
be  added,  that  probably  all  the  alkaline  earths,  and  oxide  of 
iron  and  manganese,  possess  this  power  of  converting  vege- 
table fibre  into  geine.  This  effect  has  long  been  known  to 
be  produced  by  potash  and  lime.  These  hasten  decay ;  and 
next  in  power  to  lime,  in  this  singular  process,  is  alumina, 
then  oxide  of  iron,  in  passing  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  state 
of  oxidation. 

137.  This  remarkable  process,  this  power,  energy,  func- 
tion, influence,  property,  called  by  whatsoever  name  it  may 
be,  which  is  thus  exerted,  by  the  elements  of  silicates  upon 
vegetable  fibre,  and  insoluble  geine ;  and  the  power  of 
developing  acid  properties  in  that  principle,  is  intimately 
connected  with  the  action  of  growing  plants  upon  soil.  The 
joint  effect  of  organic  and  inorganic  elements  of  soil  and 
plants  may  be  better  understood  by  adverting  to  the  proba- 
ble cause  of  this  property  of  earths,  alkalies  and  oxides ; 
though  in  the  present  state  of  science,  this  cause  may  be 
apprehended  only  by  giving  it  a  name,  which  arranges  only 


CATALYSIS,  OR   ACTION   OF   PRESENCE.  105 

many  facts  under  one  view.  The  cause  of  this  effect  of  alka- 
lies upon  gcine,  is  to  be  sought  in  that  power  which  has  been 
denominated  catalysis,  and  which  French  authors  designate 
as  the  action  of  presence ;  that  is,  the  mere  presence  of  a 
body  influences  the  nature  of  a  second  body,  so  as  wholly  to 
change  its  properties.  It  causes  the  elements  of  organic  com- 
pounds to  enter  into  new  arrangements,  by  which  they  pro- 
duce a  totally  different  substance.  The  catalytic  body,  the 
present  body,  the  changing  body  itself,  suffers  no  change, 
except,  perhaps,  in  some  cases  of  ferments,  whose  activity 
depends  upon  their  being  in  a  state  of  decomposition,  while 
the  changed  body  loses  nothing  of  its  substance.  It  often 
gains  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  or  the  elements  of  water.  For 
example,  starch  is  converted  into  sugar  by  oil  of  vitriol. 
The  acid  suffers  no  change.  It  acts  by  catalysis,  and  converts 
the  starch  to  sugar,  simply  by  the  addition  of  water,  or  its 
elements.  So  the  peculiar  principle  found  near  the  eye  of 
the  potato,  converts  starch  first  into  gum,  called  dextrine, 
and  then  converts  this  into  sugar  of  starch.  So  malt,  by  its 
gluten,  converts  starch  into  sugar  in  the  process  of  brewing 
beer.  But  the  effect  of  this  action  may  not  be  confined  to 
organic  compounds  only.  It  has  lately  been  extended,  by 
an  acute  German  chemist,  to  all  chemical  changes ;  and  it 
has  been  maintained  that  all  chemical  decomposition  takes 
place  in  obedience  only  to  a  third  substance,  acting  by  its 
presence.  Hence,  this  extension  of  the  principle,  will  allow 
the  decomposition  of  the  mineral  elements  of  soil,  to  be 
attributed  to  the  catalytic  action  of  the  plant. 

138.  Having  considered  the  action  of  the  organic  and 
inorganic  elements  of  soil  upon  each  other,  it  is  seen,  that 
though  great,  this  action  would  be  but  very  little  in  centuries. 
The  geine  itself  would  be  dissipated  in  air,  were  it  not  that, 
by  this  provision,  it  is  combined  with  the  earthy  part  of  the 
5* 


106  CATALYSIS   OF   LIFE. 

soil,  and  there  retained  for  the  use  of  plants,  which  may  grow 
near  it. 

139.  Let  plants  be  grown  in  the  soil,  whose  action  has 
been  considered.     This  introduces  life  into  the  process,  and 
it  gives  life  to  all  around  it.     It  is  not  pretended  to  explain 
what  the  action  of  life  is.    It  has  many  relations  with  chem- 
ical processes.    By  the  refined  chemistry  of  the  present  day, 
many  products  are  formed,  which  have  been  usually,  and  in 
fact,  are  now  considered  products  of  living  action  only ;  the 
peculiar  product  of  life,  urea,  is  formed  artificially ;  so  of 
other  products,  and  out  of  carbon,  nitrogen,  and  water,  may 
be  formed  as  many,  and  as  complex  products  as  are  ever 
elaborated  by  a  living  process;  yet  life  is  not  a  chemical 
process,  and  were  it  attempted  to  explain  how,  out  of  the 
four  simple  elements,  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitro- 
gen, all  the  variety  of  vegetable  products  are  formed,  it 
might  be  said  that  life  is  a  catalytic  power.     The  vital  prin- 
ciple by  its  presence,  impresses  the  same  power  on  the  food 
we  take,  that  the  peculiar  principle  in  malt  and  in  potato, 
called  diastase,  impresses  on  starch.     It  merely,  by  its  pres- 
ence, gives  to  the  elements  power  to  enter  into  new  combi- 
nations, and  then  these  combinations  occur  in  obedience  only 
to  the  well-known,  established,  eternal  laws  of  chemical 
affinity. 

140.  So,  too,  the  presence  of  a  growing  plant,  of  the  root, 
of  a  seed,  where  life  is,  impresses  on  the  soil,  both  on  the 
organic  and  inorganic  elements,  power  to  enter  into  nevr 
arrangements.     The  soil,  then,  is  not  external  to  the  plants ; 
so  far  as  life  is  concerned,  it  is  as  much  internal  as  if  the 
plant  had  a  mouth  and  stomach,  through  and  into  which  the 
soil  might  be  fed. 

141.  Call  this  power  life,  electricity,  galvanism,  or  by  any 
other  name,  still  the  great  fact,  that  the  mere  presence  of  a 


ACTION   OF  SALTS   OR  MINERAL   MANURES.      107 

living,  growing  plant  in  soil,  in  one  year  effects  a  greater 
amount  of  its  decomposition,  than  all  atmospheric  influences, 
in  many  years,  is  one  of  the  very  highest  interest,  in  a  prac- 
tical view.  It  is,  perhaps,  of  more  value  than  all  the  other 
actions  which  have  been  considered. 

142.  It  is  this  decomposing  action  of  living  plants,  on  the 
inorganic  elements  of  soil,  which  affords  a  reasonable  expla- 
nation of  the  action  of  salts  in  agriculture.     The  catalytic 
power  of  life  dissociates  the  elements  of  salts.    They  enter 
into  new  combinations.      The  base  and  the  acid  are  separated 
by  the  action  of  the  living  plant. 

143.  On   no  subject   in   agriculture   are  opinions   more 
divided,  than  on  the  manner  how  salts  or  mineral  manures 
act.    Their  amount  in  soil  is  small.    That  is  soon  exhausted. 
They  cannot  be  artificially  supplied,  in  excess,  without  induc- 
ing very  serious  injury,  and,  in  fact,  often  produce  barren- 
ness ;  yet  are  often  decidedly  beneficial.     It  is  not  less  diffi- 
cult to  account  for  the  good,  than  for  bad  effects  of  salts. 
Among  all  the  variety  of  substances  acting  as  salts,  a  dis- 
tinct theory  is  generally  framed  and  adopted  for  each.     If 
any  attempt  has  been  made  to  arrange  all  the  facts  relating 
to  this  subject,  it  has  ended  in  this,  that  they  are  stimulants. 
They  are  to  the  plants  what  condiments  are  to  the  food  of 
man.     This  may  do  very   well  as  an  illustration,  and  the 
author  has  elsewhere  said,  that  *'  the  soil  is  the  plate,  the 
geine  the  food,  the  salt  the  seasoning." 

144.  This  leads  to  no  practical  result,  except  it  be  this, 
that  if  salts  are  seasoning,  like  the  seasoning  of  our  food, 
they  must  be  used  sparingly.     Some  general  law  is  wanting, 
which  shall  at  once  account  for  the  effects  of  salts,  and  while 
it  points  out  how  so  very  minute  a  portion  as  the  four-hun- 
dred h  part  of  one  per  cent,  of  the  soil  produces  unquestion- 
ably good  effects,  one  per  cent,  will  be  injurious.     Some 


108  ACTION    OF  SALTS. 

general  principle  is  wanted,  which  will  enable  the  farmer  to 
say  what  the  action  of  a  salt  will  be  ;  and  whether  he  may 
apply  one,  or  less  than  one  per  cent,  of  it,  without  risking 
his  crop. 

145.  Such  a  general  principle  can  be  deduced  from  the 
known  chemical  action  of  the  elements  of  soil,  aided  by  the 
living  plants,  upon  each  other.     It  is  this  tenth  principle  of 
agricultural  chemistry,  THE  BASK  OF  ALL  SALTS  ACTS  EVER  THE 

SAME  IN  AGRICULTURE.  PECULIARITY  OF  ACTION  DEPENDS  ON 
THE  ACID  OF  THE  SALT. 

146.  Forget,  reader,  all  other  principles  which  have  been 
presented  to  you.     Banish  from  your  mind,  if  you  will,  all 
that  has  been  said,  on  the  origin  and  nature  of  soil.     Put  it 
down,  all,  all  to  the  account  of  book  farming.     Let  it  be 
branded  all  as  theory,  and  that  too  as  the  worst  of  theories, 
theory  fruitless,  a  goodly  blossom  bearing  no  fruit,  a  Dead 
Sea  apple  ;  but  do  not  condemn  the  principle  now  enunciated. 
Let  that  stand  alone,  by  itself,  for  itself.     In  all  its  length 
and  breadth,  it  is  the  great  practical  principle  of  agricultural 
chemistry.     It  opens  veins  rich  in  results,  more  precious 
than  mines  of  gold. 

147.  The  action  of  salts  in  agriculture,  is  to  be  regarded 
in  a  twofold  light.     First,  a  large  proportion  of  salts  is  found 
in  plants,  composed  of  alkalies  and  alkaline  bases  of  earths, 
united  to  a  mineral  acid,  such  as  sulphuric,  muriatic,  phos- 
phoric.    These  salts  are  taken  up  by   the  roots  of  plants 
when  dissolved  in  water,  and  thus  form  a  constituent  of  veg- 
etables.   Secondly,  a  large  quantity  of  alkali  and  alkaline 
earths  is  united  in  plants,  with  a  vegetable  acid.     In  this 
case  the  salts  of  the  soil  have  been  decomposed  by  the 
living   plant.     What  is  the   consequence?    The   base,   if 
alkali,  lime,  alumina,  magnesia,  iron,  acts  upon  geine,  ren- 
dering that  soluble,  and  it  is  then  taken  up  as  such,  or  it 


ACTION   OF  SALTS.  109 

forms  an  alkaline  or  earthy,  or  metallic  geate,  which,  enter- 
ing the  plant  as  such,  is  there 'decomposed  by  the  vegetable 
acid  produced  in  the  living  plant;  while  the  acid  of  the  salt 
thus  let  loose  in  the  soil,  acting  on  the  silicates,  forms  new 
salts,  which,  in  their  turn,  play  a  similar  part  to  that  pro- 
duced by  the  original  salt. 

148.  The  effect  of  this  action  of  salts  is,  that  they  contin- 
ually reproduce  themselves.     The  effect  may  be  illustrated 
by  yeast,  which  added  to  dough,  begets  a  new  portion  of 
the  fermenting  principle,  which  again  added  to  new  dough, 
still  begets  new  leaven,  and  this  without  end.     It  is  not  to 
be  understood,  from  this  illustration,  that  the  action  of  salts 
is  fermentation. 

149.  But  let  this  action  be  farther  illustrated;  suppose 
there  is  added  a  salt,  composed  of  muriatic  acid  and  soda, 
that  is  common  salt,  to  the  soil.     By  the  action  of  the  living 
plant,  this  is  decomposed.     Its  soda,  or  base,  then  acts  on 
geine.     If  this  has  been  long  in  an  insoluble  and  perfectly 
useless  condition,   it   is  now  rendered   soluble,   and  hence 
supplies  plants  with  food.     A  very  marked  and  decided  effect 
is  perceived  from  applying  a  small  quantity  per  acre,  of  a 
salt,  which  certainly   of   itself   contains  no   nutriment  for 
plants. 

150.  The  effects  here  produced,  may  be  due  to  the  small 
quantity  of  alkali,  acting  on  an  indefinite  quantity  of  geine ; 
but  the  effect  so  often  observed,  of  the  minute  quantity  of 
salts,  say  one-hundredth  of  one  per  cent,  of  the  soil,  seems 
hardly  compatible  with  the  explanation.     So  far  as  it  goes, 
this  is  its  action ;  but  very  probably  the  quantity  of  alkali 
in  the  salt  sown,  is  taken  up  as  a  geic  salt,  and  immediately 
carried  into  the  plants.     The  base  then  is  withdrawn,  yet  the 
action  continues.     It  continues  through  the  whole  time  the 
fruit  is  forming.     Some  other  source,  therefore,  of  the  per- 


110  ACTION   OF  SALTS. 

mancnce  of  th  s  action  must  be  sought.  That  is  due  to  the 
acid  constituent  of  the  salt.  That,  when  the  plant  decom- 
posed the  salts,  was  let  loose,  and  now  acts  on  the  silicates 
of  the  soil.  It  decomposes  these,  uniting  first  with  the  alka- 
lies, and  thus  reproducing  itself.  It  is  again  decomposed  by 
the  growing  plant.  The  same  round  of  action  continues. 
Suppose  all  this  had  been  witnessed  on  a  worn-out,  almost 
barren  field.  It  is  concluded  at  once,  that  there  is  some 
peculiar  virtue  in  the  salt  applied,  that  it  is  of  itself  food,  or 
manure  ;  whereas  the  whole  action  is  in  obedience  to  a  gene- 
ral law  applicable  to  all  salts. 

151.  Suppose  plaster  or  gypsum  has  been  applied;  the 
effects  of  a  bushel  of  plaster  per  acre,  or  even  the  one  four- 
hundredth  part  of  one  per  cent,  of  the  soil,  produces  effects 
on  alluvial  land,  which  shows  its  good  results,  as  far  as  eye 
can  reach.     It  seems  almost  incredible  that  so  minute  a 
portion  of  a  mineral  can  act  at  all,  yet  how  beautifully  is 
this  result  explained,  by  the  principle  that  plants  decompose, 
first,  this  salt;  the  lime,  for  plaster  is  a  sulphate  of  lime, 
then  acts  on  geine,  which  is  thus  rendered  soluble  ;  while  the 
acid,  the  oil  of  vitriol  or  sulphuric  acid,  immediately  acts  on 
silicates.     If  silicates  of  alkali  exist  in  the  soil,  we  have  now 
changed  sulphate  of  lime  for  an  alkaline  sulphate,  and   if 
silicate  of  lime  is  also  present,  the  potash  or  alkali,  having 
been  exhausted,  plaster  of  Paris  is  formed  anew.     So  long 
as  there  is  in  the  soil  organic  matter,  this  action  continues, 
and  will  continue  till  the  plant  has  gradually  withdrawn  for 
its  own  use,  the  acid  of  the  salt  which  was  introduced. 

152.  Fertility  depends  wholly  on  salts  and  geine.     With- 
out the  last  there  is  no  fruit  formed ;  without  the  salts  the 
geine  is  locked  up,  is  insoluble.     Consider  now  the  applica- 
tion of  this  principle,  that  the  base  of  the  salts  acts  always 
in  one  uniform  way,  its  action  is  wholly  upon  geine ;  that 


ACTION   OF  SALTS.  Ill 

the  acid  of  salts  acts  upon  silicates.  Apply  this  principle  to 
all  mineral  manures,  as  they  are  called.  They  are  all  con- 
nected by  one  common  mode  of  action  of  their  base. 
There  is  no  speculation,  there  is  no  mystery,  as  to  the  mode 
how  they  act.  The  effect  produced  by  such  wonderfully 
minute  quantities  is  no  longer  astonishing.  It  is  no  more 
wonderful  than  that  leaven  should  make  dough  rise ;  it  is 
even  less  mysterious. 

153.  Apply  this  principle  to  acids,  which  have  sometimes 
been  used.     Sprinkle  a  small  portion  of  oil  of  vitriol  on  the 
soil ;  supposing  no  free  base  present,  the  silicates  are  decom- 
posed by  the  oil  of  vitriol,  and  sulphates  of  alkalies,  and 
alkaline  earths  are  formed.     These  new  formed  salts  are,  in 
their  turn,  decomposed  by  the  living  plants ;  and  the  action 
on  geine  commences,  as  has  been  explained. 

154.  Consider  how  salts  and  geine  are  linked.     It  is  at 
once  seen  how  essential  to  the  action  of  salts  is  the  presence 
of  organic  matter,  or  geine  in  the  soil.     It  is  the  want  of  a 
principle  like  that  which  has  been  stated,  which  has  led  to  a 
waste  of  time  and  money,  in  applying  mineral  manures  to 
worn-out  and   barren  soil.     Whereas,   the   principle   (145) 
leads  to  the  application  of  both  salts  and  geine.     The  salts 
alone  would  be  useless.     Their  first  effect  in  either  case, 
would  be  the  same  on  silicates ;  but  with  geine,  this  action, 
like  fermentation,  goes  on,  begetting  new  salts ;   without  it, 
this  action  ceases  after  the  first  chemical  changes  have  occur- 
red.    In  the  first  case,  it  goes  on.     In  the  second,  it  stops. 

155.  Salts  without  geine,  act  only  on  silicates  of  the  soil. 
If,  now,  these  silicates  contain  any  portion  of  aqueous  rock 
(11),  they  usually  contain  also  distinct  traces  of  organic 
matter.     This  matter  is  due,  for  the  most  part,  to  the  geine, 
held  in  solution  in  the  water,  from  which  the  rocks  were 
deposited.     It  is  certainly  within  the  bounds,  not  only  of  a 


112  ACTION   OF  SALTS. 

chemical  possibility,  but  of  n  high  degree  of  probability,  that 
the  carbon,  under  the  influence  of  growing  plants,  may  unite 
with  oxygen  or  hydrogen,  that  is,  with  the  elements  of 
water,  and  form  thus  food  for  plants.  Hence,  on  such  soil, 
the  mere  application  of  salts,  or  of  mineral  manures,  has 
produced,  yea,  and  does  produce,  marked  and  wonderful 
effects.  This  would  be  the  effect  of  salts,  applied  to  soil 
produced  by  the  decomposition  of  slate ;  even  gneiss  soil, 
which  occurs  occasionally  in  extensive  patches,  would  be 
benefited,  but  much  less  by  such  application.  But  such  soil 
forms  an  exception,  both  to  the  general  law  which  has  been 
stated,  of  the  uniformity  of  mineral  composition,  and  to  the 
necessity  of  applying  salts  and  geine  in  conjunction.  These 
remarks  may  explain  a  seemingly  possible  anomaly  to  the 
principle,  that  the  base  of  all  salts  acts  in  one  uniform  man- 
ner upon  geine,  and  that  peculiarities  of  action  depend  on 
the  acid  of  the  salt.  The  effects  of  the  first  part  of  this 
proposition  (145),  have  been  explained;  the  effect  of  the 
second,  is  now  to  be  considered. 

150.  Perhaps  no  principle  in  agriculture  is  better  estab- 
lished than  that  an  excess  of  any  salt  in  the  usual  accepta- 
tion of  that  term,  is  a  cause  of  barrenness.  Yet  it  is  quite 
as  well  established  that  the  quantity  of  different  salts  admits 
of  some  latitude,  and  that  some  salts  do  produce  better 
results  than  others.  Referring  to  the  acid  constituents  of 
these  salts,  it  will  be  found  that  some  acids  are  organic. 
They  consist  of  hydrogen,  carbon,  oxygen,  all  which,  under 
the  influence  of  the  living  plant,  may  be  dissociated,  and 
their  elements  form  geine.  Other  acids  consist  of  oxygen 
and  nitrogen,  essential  constituents  of  plants ;  others  consist 
of  chlorine ;  others  of  sulphur  and  oxygen,  and  others  of 
carbon  and  oxygen.  In  other  words,  the  acids  are  composed 
of  elements  which  form  food  for  plants,  or  of  elements 


ACTION  OF  SALTS.  113 

which  enter,  in  a  small  proportion  only,  into  the  composition 
of  plants. 

157.  In  the  first  case,  the  salts  admit  of  a  larger  quantity 
being  applied,  than  in  the  second.     By  the  first,  plants  are 
fed,  by  the  second,  they  are  poisoned;  for  the  base  of  all 
salts  acting  as  has  been  explained,  the  acid  is  eliminated ;   if 
this  is  set  free  in  large  quantities,  and  its  elements  can  be 
taken  up  and  converted  by  the  plant,  well,  good  effects 
follow ;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  the  elements  of  the  acid  are 
such  as  the  plant  does  not  demand,  they  act  like  poison  on 
the  animal  economy. 

158.  Let  salts  be  divided,  on  this  principle  of  the  peculi- 
arity of  action  depending  upon  the  acid  of  the  salts,  into  two 
classes ;  the  first  nourishing,  the  second  poisoning  plants. 
The  first  class  contains,  a.  carbonates,  6.  nitrates,  c.  phos- 
phates. 

159.  The  action  of  the  first  class  is  to  be  studied  under  its 
three   divisions,     (a.    158),   Carbonates.     These   include   a 
very   large   portion    of  all    salts   used   in   agriculture.      It 
includes   limestone  (14),  marble,  old  mortar,  shells,  shell 
marl.      In  all  these  cases,  the  base  or  lime  let  loose  by  the 
action  of  the  living  plant,  acts  at  once,  as  caustic  lime  upon 
insoluble  geine,  and  unconverted  vegetable  fibre,  changing 
these  into  soluble  vegetable  food  ;  while  the  carbonic  acid 
acts  immediately    upon    silicates,  decomposing  these,  and 
upon  the  geates  in  the  soil,  converting  these  into  super-geates. 
Carbonates  of  alkalies,  as  ashes,  &c.,  act  at  once.     They  are 
soluble,  their  alkali  acts  immediately  upon  the  geine.  Their 
carbonic  acid  acts  upon  silicates  and  geine.     Immediate  and 
decided  good  effects  follow  their  application ;  while  carbon- 
ate of  lime  acts  slower.     It  often  requires  many  years  to 
bring  out  the  good  effects  of  carbonate  of  lime,  and  though 
ultimately  these  effects,  it  is  believed,  have  never  failed  of 


114  ACTION   OF  SALTS. 

being  witnessed  ;  yet  so  slowly,  that  its  use  has  l>een  often 
condemned.  The  principle  which  is  here  discussed,  may 
account  for  this  apparent  discrepancy.  Suppose  a  barren, 
worn-out,  exhausted  soil,  containing  yet,  a  portion  of  insolu- 
ble geine  and  decayed  vegetable  matter,  between  the  state 
of  wood  and  insoluble  geine,  or  even  a  portion  of  undecayed 
dead  wood.  It  seems  too  unpromising  to  give  it  manure ; 
little  of  that  is  to  be  spared,  and  that  is  bestowed  upon 
better  land.  If-this  is  in  a  country  where  lime  is  cheap,  th:it 
is  purchased,  and  freely  applied,  as  it  is  in  England,  at  the 
rate  of  about  a  cask  to  the  rod.  Even  in  this  case  no 
change  is  produced,  the  soil  is  as  unproductive  as  ever.  The 
experiment  has  failed,  and  is  charged  to  book  farming. 

160.  The  properties  of  lime,  and  geine,  are  here  to  be 
remembered.      Lime   in  excess,   renders    geine   insoluble, 
granting  it  to  have  been  in  a  soluble  state.     Lime  changes 
vegetable   fibre  into   soluble  geine,   but  being   applied   in 
excess,  it  forms  an  insoluble  salt.     Now,  by  the  supposition, 
there  was  no  great  excess  of  vegetable  matter,  and  the  lime 
rendering  only  a  small  portion  of  that  soluble,  is  itself,  then, 
always  in  excess,  and  though  it  converts,  it  at  the  same  time 
locks  up  that  geine  which  it  had  converted.     The  reasoning 
will  hold  good,  whether  a  cask  to  the  acre,  or  a  cask  to  the 
rod,  has  been  applied. 

161.  The  lime  has  been,  perhaps,  in  a  caustic  state,  fresh 
from  the  kiln,  and  as  soon  as  it  falls  into  powder  it  is  spread 
and  covered  in.     It  is  greedy  of  carbonic  acid  ;  so  long  as  it 
remains  caustic,  it  absorbs  this  gas,  and  slowly  becomes  car- 
bonate of  lime.     It  is  now  like  shell  marl,  clam,  oyster  and 
muscle  shells.     The  mode  of  reasoning  applies  to  all  these 
forms.     Slowly,  but  surely,  it  may  not  be  for  some  years,  a 
gradual  improvement  in  the  limed  soil  of  the  exhausted  field 
if  perceived.     The  carbonate  of  lime  begins  to  act  on  the 


ACTION  OF  SALTS.  115 

silicates ;  and  the  alkalies  of  the  silicates  are  eliminated. 
These  solve  or  decompose  the  geine  and  geates,  which  the 
lime  had  locked  up ;  at  the  same  time  the  silicic  acid  acts  on 
the  carbonate  of  lime,  volumes  of  carbon  re  acid  are  let  loose. 
The  carbonic  acid  itself  reacts  on  silicates,  eliminating  afresh 
portion  of  alkali,  and  upon  the  geates,  converting  these  into 
super-geates.  A  round  of  change  goes  on,  till  perhaps  every 
particle  of  vegetable  food  is  withdrawn  ;  crops  are  no  longer 
raised.  Having  witnessed,  though  slow  to  believe  it,  good 
effects  from  liming,  the  farmer  again  applies  it  to  the  ex- 
hausted field  ;  but  no  good  effects  Can  now  follow,  unless 
manure  or  decayed  vegetable  matter  is  also  applied.  This 
may  be  furnished  in  two  ways,  either  artificially  or  naturally, 
that  is,  by  allowing  the  scanty  crop  of  all  sorts  of  weeds, 
grass,  mullein,  &c.,  to  decay  on  the  soil  where  it  grew.  But 
this  subject  will  be  considered  in  another  place. 

162.  It  has  been  attempted  to  show  how  the  contradictory 
and  anomalous  effects  of  lime  are  explicable,  on  the  princi- 
ple (145)  ;  and  here  the  general  theory  of  the  action  of  lime 
may  be  adverted  to,  much  of  which  has  been  anticipated. 
Lime  is  a  general  term,  it  includes  all  forms  of  calcareous 
matter.  It  is  the  lime,  the  base  of  the  salts  which  acts,  and 
tlmt  always,  as  lime,  no  matter  how  it  is  applied  ;  whether 
as  marble,  as  marl,  shells,  air-slacked  lime,  bones  or  plaster. 
In  a  restricted  and  usual  acceptation  of  the  term,  lime  refers 
only  to  that  which  has  been  burned,  or  stone  lime.  Its 
action  is  threefold,  each  distinct,  first,  as  a  neutralizer — 
secondly,  a  decomposer — thirdly,  a  converter. 

1st.  Wherever  free  acids  exist  in  soil,  lime  acts  as  a  neu- 
tralizer. It  has  been  asserted,  on  undoubted  authority,  that 
occasionally  free  phosphoric,  muriatic,  geic,  acetic,  and  malic 
acids  exist  in  soil. 

2d.  Soil  may  contain  abundant  geates,  particularly  gcate 


116  ACTION  OF  SALTS. 

of  alumina,  the  least  of  all  demanded  oy  plants.  Long 
formed  and  sun-baked,  they  are  scarcely  acted  on  by  rain  or 
dew,  and  are  almost  useless.  Here,  lime,  by  decomposing 
these  earthy  and  metallic  geates,  forms  a  combination 
which,  in  its  nascent  state,  is  readily  dissolved.  If  the  car- 
bonate of  lime  acts  better  than  the  hydrate,  it  is  because, 
following  a  well-known  law,  double  decomposition  is  easier 
than  single.  If  any  acid  geine  exists  in  the  soil,  or  any  free 
acids,  carbonic  acid  is  then  liberated,  it  acts  on  the  geate  of 
lime,  super-geates  result,  and  these  are  easily  soluble. 

3d.  The  great  use  of  lime  is  as  a  converter,  turning  solid 
and  insoluble  geine,  even  solid  vegetable  fibre,  into  soluble 
vegetable  food.  Here  is  the  point,  where  philosophy  seems 
to  give  the  choice,  to  refer  this  action  to  one  of  the  numer- 
ous cases  of  catalytic  change,  which  are  every  day  becoming 
more  and  more  familiar  ;  or  to  explain  the  whole  process  by 
referring  it  to  saponification.  This  word  is  used  as  convey- 
ing at  once  what  is  meant,  but  it  is  not  meant  to  say  that 
the  product  of  lime  and  vegetable  matter  is  soap.  The 
action  of  lime  on  geine  may  be  similar  to  its  action  on  oil 
and  fat.  It  is  well-established  that  animal  and  vegetable  oils 
and  fats  are  converted  into  acids  by  the  action  of  alkalies, 
earths,  oxides,  and  even  by  vegetable  fibre  itself.  The  gen- 
eral law  is,  that  whenever  a  substance  capable  of  uniting 
with  the  acid  of  fat  or  oil,  is  placed  in  contact  with  fat  or 
oil,  it  determines  the  production  of  acid.  Now,  it  has  been 
shown  that  alkali  produces  a  similar  change  on  geine,  it  de- 
velops acid  properties.  If  alkali  has  converted  vegetable  oil 
and  geine  into  acid,  it  is  a  reason  why  a  similar  action  may 
be  produced  by  all  those  substances  which  act  thus  on  oil. 
Hence  lime,  earths,  and  metallic  oxides,  convert  geine  into 
acid  ;  as  fast  as  this  takes  place,  so  fast  it  becomes  soluble. 
Then,  too,  the  long  action  of  air  on  insoluble  gcinc  render- 


ACTION   OF  SALTS.  117 

ing  it  soluble,  is  it  not  analogous  to  the  action  of  air  on.  oils  ? 
Both  evolve,  in  this  case,  vast  volumes  of  carbonic  acid,  the 
oil  becomes,  gelatinous  and  soluble  in  alkali ;  does  not  a  sim- 
ilar change  occur  in  geine  ?  It  is  possible  that  during  the 
action  of  lime  on  geine,  a  soluble  substance  may  be  pro- 
duced, bearing  the  same  relation  to  this  process  that  gly- 
cerine does  to  saponification.  These  views  need  to  be 
followed  out  experimentally,  and  may  be  possibly  hereafter 
considered. 

163.  In  the  acid  soil,  lime  acts  to  eliminate  carbonic  acid, 
which  then  acts  on  silicates  and  geine,  as  has  been  explained. 
All  fat  acids,  or  fats  and  oils,  act  in  the  same  way  upon  sili- 
cates,1 partly  by  their  own  acid  properties,  and  partly  by  the 
evolution  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  is  evolved  during  their 
conversion  into  the  acid  state.  The  quantity  of  carbonate 
of  lime  which  may  be  applied  is  unlimited,  and  the  quantity 
of  alkali  depends  on  the  presence  of  insoluble  geine.  The 
more  abundant  is  the  last,  the  more  freely  may  alkalies  be 
applied.  The  carbonates  include  ashes  of  all  kinds,  and 
agriculturally  viewed,  all  kinds  of  lime,  for  the  quick  soon 
becomes  mild.  The  value  of  ashes  in  agriculture,  depends 
upon  its  being  a  combination  of  salts  derived  from  plants, 
all  of  which  have  a  powerful  and  decidedly  beneficial  effect. 
The  question  is  often  asked,  What  is  the  relative  value  of 
spent  or  leeched  and  unleeched  ashes  ?  It  may  be  answered 
by  reference  to  the  analysis  of  ashes. 

Burning  reduces  organic  substance  to  two  classes,  ashes 
and  volatile  salts.  The  last  are  found  in  soot.  The  ashes 
are  formed  of  salts  and  silicates.  These  vary  in  quantity 
and  quality,  not  only  in  different  plants,  but,  as  is  well  known, 
in  different  parts  of  the  same  plant.  Let  us  take  oak,  beech, 
basswood,  birch,  as  the  types  of  the  composition  of  hard 


118 


ACTION   OF   SALTS. 


wood  ashes ;  yellow  pine — (pinus  abies) — as  the  type  of  soft, 
wood  ashes  ;  and  wheat  straw  as  the  type  of  the  ashes  of  the 
grasses. 

The  average  quantity  of  ashes  from  100  parts  of  dry  oak, 
beech,  birch,  &c.,  is  2.87.  Ashes  are  divided  imperfectly  by 
the  simple  process  of  leeching,  into  two  parts,  one  soluble, 
and  the  other  insoluble  in  water.  100  parts  of  hard  wood 
ashes  would  afford,  of  soluble,  13.57 ;  of  insoluble,  86.43 
parts,  if  perfectly  separated. 


1 00  parts  of  the  soluble  contain  : 

Carbonic  acid, 

Sulphuric  acid,        ..... 

Muriatic  acid,          ..... 

Silex,     ....... 

Potash  and  soda,     ..... 


100  parts  of  the  insoluble  contain : 

Carbonic  acid, 

Phosphoric  acid, 

Silex 

Oxide  of  iron, 

Oxide  of  manganese,       .... 

Magnesia,       ...... 

Lime,     ....... 


22.70 

6.43 

1.82 

.95 

67.96 


99.86 


35.83 
3.40 
4.27 
.50 
1.10 
4.55 

50.35 

100. 


Pine— (pinus  abies) — 100  parts  of  dry  wood  afford  only 
.83  Ib.  of  ashes  ;  cf  which  100  parts  afford  of  soluble,  50  ; 
of  insoluble,  50. 


ACTION    OF  SALTS. 


119 


100  parts  of  the  soluble  contain : 
Carbonic  acid,         ..... 
Sulphuric  acid,        ..... 

Silex, 

Potash  and  soda,    ..... 
Water, 


100  parts  of  the  insoluble  contain . 

Carbonic  acid, 

Phosphoric  acid,      ..... 

Silex, 

Magnesia,       ...... 

Oxide  of  iron,         ..... 

Oxide  of  manganese,       .... 

Lime,     ....... 


13.50 
6.90 
2. 

69.70 
7.90 

100. 


21.50 
1.80 

13. 
8.70 

22.30 
5.50 

27.20 

100. 


A  bushel  of  common  hard  wood  ashes  weighs  about  50 
Ibs. ;  6.75  Ibs.  are  soluble  in  water,  and  consist  of 


Potash  and  soda, 
Sulphuric  acid,  . 
Muriatic  acid,  . 
Carbonic  acid,  . 
Silica, 


4.605  pounds. 
0.433   " 
0.122   « 
1.530   " 
0.060   " 


6.750 


43.25  Ibs.  are  insoluble  in  water,  and  consist  of 


Carbonic  acid,     . 
Phosphoric  acid, 


15.59  pounds. 
1,47       " 


120  ACTION   OF  SALTS. 

Silica, 1.84  pounds. 

Lime,         .         .        .         .         .         .  21.77       " 

Magnesia, 1.96       " 

Oxide  of  iron, 0.21       " 

Oxide  of  manganese,  ....      0.41       " 

43.25       " 

It  is  evident  from  these  tables  that  the  common  opinion 
of  the  inferiority  of  pine  ashes  is  unfounded.  Though  pine 
yields  less  weight  of  ash  than  hard  wood,  in  proportion  of 
.83  to  2.87,  yet,  in  equal  weights,  pine  ash  affords  four  times 
more  alkali  than  the  ash  of  hard  wood. 

50  Ibs.  hard  ash  yields  6.75  Ibs.  soluble,  of  which  4.GO 
Ibs.  are  alkalies. 

50  Ibs.  soft  ash  yields  25  Ibs.  soluble,  of  which  17.42  Ibs. 
are  alkalies. 

Wheat  straw — 100  parts  yield  4.40  Ibs.  of  ashes;  100 
parts  of  which  afford,  of  soluble,  19;  of  insoluble,  81. 

100  parts  of  the  soluble  contain  : 

Sulphuric  acid, 0.2 

Muriatic  acid,  .         .         .         .         .         .13. 

Silex, 35.6 

Potash  and  soda, 50. 

100  parts  of  the  insoluble  contain  : 

Phosphoric  acid, 1.20 

Silex, 75. 

Oxide  of  iron, 2.50 

Lime,      .......       5.80 

Charcoal, 15.50 

The  above  tables  of  wood  and  straw  ashes  are  calculated 
on  the  analyses  of  Berthier.  The  elements  are  stated  singly, 
because  we  have  thus,  at  one  view,  the  amount  of  each,  and 


ACTION   OF  SALTS. 


121 


it  is  the  base  chiefly  which  acts.  The  agricultural  value  of 
ashes  may  be  determined  by  reference  to  these  tables.  In 
what  state  these  elements  may  be  combined  in  plants,  we 
can  only  determine  theoretically.  Thus,  the  phosphoric  acid, 
by  its  affinities,  would  be  united  in  the  hard  woods  as  above, 
with  the  lime  and  iron,  forming  in  each  100  parts  of  the 
insoluble  portion  of  ashes,  phosphate  of  lime,  5.40;  phos- 
phate of  iron,  1.86. 

The  average  composition  of  the  ashes  of  hemlock,  spruce, 
chestnut,  white  elm,  black  birch,  black  cherry,  and  red  beech, 
calculated  on  the  analyses  of  Prof.  Emmons,  is  as  follows : 


Potash,     .... 
Soda,        .... 
Common  salt,    . 
Chlorine,   .... 
Sulphuric  acid,  . 
Carbonate  of  lime,    . 
Phosphates   of  lime,  mag- 
nesia, and  iron, 
Silica,        .... 
Magnesia, 

Coal  and  moisture,    . 


12.032 
8.642 
0.050 
0.120 
4.374 

45.834  1 

18.566 
3.390 
5.321 

98.329 
1.671 

100.000 


soluble 
in  water, 


insoluble 
in  water, 


25.218 


73.111 


98.329 


In  the  leach  tub,  the  separation  into  soluble  and  insoluble 
would  take  place  as  above. 

The  composition  of  the  insoluble  part  of  ashes  gives  nearly 
the  constituents  of  leached  ashes.  If  the  soap-boiler's  pro- 
cess was  as  perfect  as  that  which  the  chemist  employs,  still 
his  leached  ashes  would  show  more  Hme  than ^ the  above 
6 


122  ACTION    OF  SALTS. 

tables,  because  he  always  employs  a  portion  of  lime  U>  make 
his  lye  caustic.  This  is  a  variable  portion ;  whatever  it  is, 
it  adds  so  much  to  the  value  of  the  leached  ashes.  Besides, 
the  soap-maker  always  leaves  a  portion  of  alkali,  which  is 
combined  with  the  silex.  Exposure  to  air  decomposes  thi*, 
and  then  the  alkali  can  be  extracted  by  water.  This  is  one 
great  source  of  the  active  power  of  leached  ashes. 

104.  A  bushel  of  good  ashes  contains  about  4£  Ib.s.  of  real 
potash.  In  leaching  ashes,  generally  about  one  pound  of 
lime  is  added  to  each  bushel  of  ashes,  and  as  it  loses  no  bulk 
during  the  operation,  a  cord  of  leached  ashes  contains  about 
the  following  proportions,  allowing  the  usual  proportion  of 
potash  to  be  leached  out,  or  4  Ibs.  per  bushel : — 

Phosphoric  acid, 147  Ibs. 

Silex, 184   " 

Oxide  of  iron, 21    " 

Oxide  of  manganese,    .         .         .  41    " 

Magnesia, 196   " 

Carbonic  acid, 1G57   " 

Lime,  including  that  added  in  leaching,     2277   " 
Potash,  combined  with  silica,         .         .       50   " 
Combining  the  phosphoric  acid  with  lime  to  form  bone  dust, 
and  converting  the  remainder  of  the  lime  into  carbonate,  a 
cord  of  leached  ashes  contains : 

Bone  dust,  319  Ibs. 

Potash, 50   " 

Magnesia, 196   " 

Silica, 184  " 

Oxide  of  iron,       .         .         .  •  21    " 

Oxide  of  manganese,    .         .        .  41    " 

Carbonate  of  lime,       ....  3766  " 

4577   " 


ACTION   OF   SAL.S. 


123 


A  cord  weighs  about  9000  Ibs.,  and  hence  one  naif  the 
weight  is  water. 

Sprengel  has  determined  the  components  in  100,000 
pounds  of  dry  leached  ashes  thus : 


Silica, 

Caustic  lime, 
Magnesia, 
Alumina  . 
Oxide  of  iron,  . 
Oxide  of  manganese, 
Potash  as  silicate, 
Soda  as  silicate, 
Sulphuric  acid, 
Phosphoric  acid, 
Common  salt,    . 
Carbonates    of    lime 
and  magnesia, 


35.000  or  per  cord  wet  1575.00  Ibs. 


35.010 

2.330  " 

1.500  " 

1.700  " 

1.840  " 

0.500  " 

0.180  " 

0.190  " 

3.500  " 

0.090  « 

18.160  " 


100.000 


1575.45  " 

104.85  " 

67.50  " 

76.50  " 

82.80  " 

22.50  " 

08.10  " 

08.55  " 

157.50  " 

004.05  " 

817.20  " 
4500. 


Calculating  from  Sprengel's  numbers  the  proportions  for 
2500  Ibs.  in  a  cord  wet  from  the  soap  boiler,  the  result  is 
expressed  above  in  the  right-hand  column.  Reducing  some 
of  these  to  phosphate  and  carbonate  of  lime  the  result  is  per 
cord: 

Phosphate  of  lime  or  bone  dust,    .     340  Ibs. 
Carbonate  of  lime,         .         .         .  3302   " 

Spent  ashes,  therefore,  belong  to  the  class  of  carbonates. 

Peat  ashes  abound  in  carbonate,  sulphate,  and  especially 
phosphate  of  lime.  Free  alkali  may  be  always  traced  in 
peat  ashes ;  but  alkali  exists  in  it,  rather  as  a  silicate,  as  in 
leached  ashes.  Anthracite  coal  ashes  contain  in  100  parts: 


12-i  ACTION  OF  SALTS. 

White  Ash.  Red  A»h. 

Matter  insoluble  in  acids,         .  88.68  .  .     85.65 

Soluble  silica,          .         .         .  0.09  .  .       1.24 

Alumina,        ....  3.36  .  ..      4.24 

Iron, 4.03  .  .       5.83 

Lime, 2.11  .  .       0.16 

Magnesia,       ....  0.19  .  .      2.01 

Soda, 0.22  ..       0.16 

Potash, 0.16  .  .0.11 

Phosphoric  acid,     .        .        .  0.20  .  .      0.27 

Sulphuric  acid,         .        .        .  0.86  .  .      0.43 

Chlorine,         ....  0.09  .  .0.01 

Prtrf.  J.  P.  Norton. 

One  hundred  pounds  of  anthracite  coal  ashes  contain : 

White  Atth.  Bed  A*h. 

Soluble  in  water;    .        .         .      3.47     .         .       3.35 

Soluble  in  acids,      ...        .      7.50    .         .       8.00 

Hence,  from  4  to  8  pounds  in  every  100  are  valuable  to 
the  farmer ;  but  the  ashes  are  not  worth  the  carting  to  any 
great  distance.  Indeed,  it  is  seen  that  the  composition  of 
anthracite  ashes  is  very  nearly  that  of  soil  deprived  of  its 
geine. 

165.  It  may  be  here  remarked  in  relation  to  silicate  of  pot- 
ash, that  this  substance  forms  a  greater  part  of  the  residuum 
produced  in  the  conversion  of  pot  into  pearl  ashes,  for  the 
purposes  of  glass  manufactures,  &c.  This  residuum  has  been 
used  with  the  most  signal  success,  when  mixed  in  the  pro- 
portion of  a  barrel  of  this  material  with  ten  horse-cart  loads 
of  soil  alone.  (See  Colman's  Fourth  Report  on  the  Agricul- 
ture of  Massachusetts,  p.  344.)  The  silicate  of  potash,  act- 
ing entirely  by  its  conversion  into  carbonate  of  potash,  is 
properly  considered  in  the  c'ass  of  carbonates. 


ACTION   OF  SALTS.  125 

160.  The  second  class  of  salts  belonging  to  the  first  divi- 
sion, or  nourishers  (b.  158),  are  the  nitrates,  including  not 
only  saltpetre,  both  East  Indian  and  South  American,  or 
nitrate  of  potash  and  nitrate  of  soda,  but  also  all  composts 
of  lime,  alkali,  and  animal  matter.  The  last  produces  am- 
monia, which,  without  the  alkali,  would  act  on  geine  and 
render  that  soluble.  Ammonia,  by  the  mere  act  of  presence, 
hastens  decay ;  but  without  the  influence  of  lime,  or  alkali, 
ammonia  is  changed  to  nitrate  of  ammonia  (126),  for  this 
base,  by  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  is  changed  into  aquafortis,  or 
nitric  acid.  While  a  portion  of  acid  and  base  are  present, 
they  unite  and  form  a  salt.  A  portion  of  ammonia  is  thus 
continually  withdrawn.  If  lime  or  alkali  is  present,  the 
nitric  acid  unites  with  these,  leaving  the  ammonia  to  act  on 
geine. 

167.  Thus,  in  a  compost  of  animal  matter  without  alkaline 
bases,  all  the  geine  has  not  been  rendered  soluble,  as  is 
usually  supposed,  by  the  action  of  ammonia.  Before  the 
full  action  of  that  element  has  been  exerted  on  the  organic 
matter,  it  has  been  converted  into  a  nitrate.  But  if  the 
lime  exceeds  that  which  the  nitric  acid  can  saturate,  then  the 
soluble  geine  is  seized  upon  and  becomes  inert.  Nitrates 
act  under  the  influence  of  the  growing  plant;  the  base  let 
loose,  acts  on  geine ;  the  acid  is  decomposed,  and  its  nitro- 
gen given  up  to  the  plant,  becomes  one  of  their  essential  ele- 
ments. The  elements  of  nitrate  of  ammonia  are  all  taken 
up,  both  acid  and  base.  If  there  are  any  salts  which  can  be 
called  vegetable  food,  they  are  the  nitrates.  The  organic 
constituents  of  plants  are  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  carbon  and 
nitrogen.  By  their  union,  the  two  first  form  water;  the  two 
middle  carbonic  acid ;  the  first  and  last  ammonia.  Water, 
ammonia,  and  carbonic  acid,  then,  or  their  elements,  com- 
pose the  organic  part  of  all  plants.  Water  and  carbon  exist 


126  ACTION  OF  SALTS. 

in  geine,  and  nitrogen  in  its  ammonia  compounds.  Geinc 
thus  contains  the  elements  of  water,  ammonia,  and  carbonic 
acid,  or  the  whole  organic  food  of  plants.  The  nitrogen, 
also,  exists  in  the  air.  It  forms  80  per  cent,  of  it.  In  this 
state  it  cannot  be  assimilated  by  the  plant  till  that  has  put 
forth  its  leaves.  Its  only  source  for  the  roots  and  for  the 
germinating  seed,  is  that  arising,  either  from  the  geine,  or 
from  ammonia  evolved  by  the  fermenting  dung,  or  from 
nitrates.  In  either  case,  whether  the  nitrogen  arises  from 
the  geine  or  from  the  nitrates,  decomposition  takes  place  by 
the  action  of  the  living  plant. 

1G8.  Under  this  view,  nitre  is  found  to  be  one  of  the  most 
active,  bland,  and  beneficial  salts.  Nitre  consists  of  an 
alkali,  and  an  acid  composed  of  one  part  of  nitrogen  to  five 
of  oxygen.  The  plant  decomposes  these.  The  disposition 
of  the  alkali,  or  of  tho  base,  has  been  already  considered. 
What  becomes  of  its  acid  ?  That,  too,  is  slowly  decomposed. 
What  becomes  of  its  elements  1  The  one  part  of  nitrogen 
is  taken  up  by  the  living  plant,  or  it  may,  under  the  com- 
bined influences  to  which  it  is  now  subjected,  be  in  part  re- 
converted into  ammonia,  by  the  hydrogen  of  the  geine,  and 
so  act  on  that  as  alkali.  What  becomes  of  its  five  parts  of 
oxygen  ?  The  answer  is  full  of  the  highest  interest.  It  is  a 
key,  unlocking  the  chambers  of  mystery.  The  oxygen  acts, 
first,  on  the  geine  of  the  soil,  and  secondly,  on  the  sili- 
cates. And  first,  on  geine ;  let  it  be  supposed  that  this  is 
wholly  insoluble,  perfectly  inert.  It  has  been  already  said 
that  air  converts  this  into  soluble  geine.  This  action  de- 
pends on  the  oxygen  of  the  air  acting  on  the  carbon,  by 
which  carbonic  acid  is  formed  ;  the  geine  is  thus  rendered 
soluble,  while  the  carbonic  acid  escaping,  acts  on  the  sili- 
cates of  the  soil,  and  these  are  thus  decomposed.  There  is 
no  mystery  now  m  the  action  of  saltpetre,  or  nitrates  of 


ACTION   OF    SALTS.  127 

alkalies.  The  immediate  effects  arc  due  to  the  liberated 
alkali,  acting  on  the  geine.  Its  permanent  effect,  for  experi- 
ence has  proved  permanency  of  effect,  due  to  nitrates,  is 
owing  to  the  liberation  of  an  immense  dose  of  oxygen  which 
is  produced  from  the  gradual  decomposition  of  the  acid. 
Now,  the  insoluble  geine  condenses  this  in  its  pores,  like 
charcoal.  This  condensation,  like  that  of  gas  by  charcoal, 
produces  heat ;  it  is  like  fermenting  manure,  while  the  con- 
densed oxygen  acts  slowly  on  the  geine,  and  forms  carbonic 
acid.  It  has  upon  the  geine,  buried  in  the  soil,  the  same 
effect  that  tillage  would  have,  rendering  it  soluble,  with  this 
additional  advantage,  that  its  carbonic  acid,  instead  of  es- 
caping, acts  on  the  silicates.  New  portions  of  alkali  are 
thus  liberated,  supplying  for  years  that  which  was  first 
applied  as  a  part  of  saltpetre.  The  nitrates,  then,  hold  the 
very  first  place  among  salts  in  agriculture. 

169.  The  third  class  (c.  158)  of  the  nourishers  are  the 
phosphates.  This  class  includes  bones,  horns,  nails,  hoofs, 
claws,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  salts  found  in  the  liquid 
excretions  of  animals.  These  act  much  like  nitre,  the  acid 
forming  a  constituent  of  the  plants.  It  is  not  probable  that 
the  acid  in  this  class  is  decomposed.  It  has  not  yet  been 
proved  that  carbonates  and  nitrates  exist,  already  formed, 
except  in  a  very  few  plants.  The  quantity  of  salts  which 
may  be  applied,  will  be  greater  for  the  carbonates,  less  for 
the  nitrates,  and  least  for  the  phosphates.  The  quantity  of 
any  salt  which  may  be  used,  will,  after  the  largest  amount 
which  can  be  safely  employed  has  been  ascertained,  depend 
upon  the  farmer's  ability  to  produce  it.  Carbonate  of  lime 
may  be  used  to  any  extent,  according  to  the  farmer's  idea 
of  its  value.  Carbonate,  ^f  alkali  may  be  used  with  benefit. 
The  largest  quantity  which  has  been  known  to  be  used  with- 
out injury,  has  been  53  bushels  of  ashes  per  acre,  which  are 


128  ACTION  OF   SALTS. 

equal  to  240  Ibs.  of  potash.  The  quantity  of  a  carbonate  of 
alkali  which  may  be  used,  will  be  stated  more  fully  here- 
after. It  is  not  the  object  of  this  work  to  state  quantities  to 
be  used,  so  much  as  to  point  out  the  principles  on  which 
salts  act.  The  quantities  used  must  be  determined  by 
experiment,  and  perhaps  when  the  largest  amount,  which  has 
been  stated,  is  taken  for  a  new  starting  point,  the  ultimate 
quantity  will  be  found  limited  only  by  the  geine  in  the  soil, 
or  applied  in  conjunction  with  the  salt. 

170.  If  we  now  turn  to  the  other  division  of  salts  (158), 
the  poisons,  that  is,  those  whose  acid  forms  but  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  elements  of  plants,  we  find  there  two  classes : 
First,  sulphates,  as  plaster,  copperas,  Glauber's  salts,  all  of 
which,  in  small  quantities,  arc  beneficial. 

Secondly,  muriates  or  chlorides,  as  they  are  strictly  call- 
ed, as  common  salt,  muriate  of  lime,  bittern,  spent  lye  from 
soap-works.  An  explanation,  which  attributes  the  action  of 
sulphate  of  lime  or  plaster,  to  its  power  of  decomposing  and 
fixing  in  soil,  carbonate  of  ammonia  ought  to  show,  1st,  the 
actual  presence  of  that  salt  in  air ;  2d,  that  sulphate  of  am- 
monia is  not  decomposed  by  the  resulting  carbonate  of  lime 
in  the  cold ;  3d,  that  common  salt  would,  in  equivalent 
quantity  with  plaster,  produce  equally  good  effects.  It 
never  has,  and  therefore  this  explanation  is  not  correct. 
Common  salt  has  been  found  beneficial  when  applied  at  the 
rate  of  30  bushels  per  acre ;  and  at  14  bushels  per  acre,  was 
found  to  produce  effect,  next  best  to  53  bushels  of  ashes  per 
acre,  but  quicklime  at  26  bushels  per  acre  on  the  same  land, 
produced  no  good  result. 

171.  In  all  this  action  of  salts,  it  is  seen  that  the  presence 
of  life  seems  almost  essential.     Whatever  the  vital  princi- 
ple may  be,  it  may  be  best  represented  as  analogous  to  elec- 
tricity and  galvanisr.     In  this  point  of  view,  the  suits  pro- 


ACTION   OF   SALTS.  129 

sent  themselves  in  a  new  relation,  in  which,  alone,  they  may 
be  said  to  be  stimulants  or  excitants.  Plants  and  soil  act, 
it  may  be  supposed,  for  illustration,  by  forming  galvanic 
batteries,  or  piles  with  each  other.  The  most  active  element 
in  the  pile,  is  the  growing  plant.  It  is  an  acknowledged  fact, 
that  chemical  action,  if  not  the  source,  s  ever  attended  by 
electrical  effects.  An  acid,  in  contact  with  an  alkali,  or 
metal,  always  produces  chemical  action  ;  but  the  silicates  of 
the  soil  are  already  combinations  of  acid  and  metals ;  hence, 
as  such,  they  have  no  tendency  to  act  on  each  other.  If 
there  be  added  to  these  a  salt  or  an  acid,  chemical  action, 
decomposition  begins.  The  electricity  is,  we  may  say, 
excited  by  salts ;  they  are  in  this  sense,  and  in  no  other, 
excitants  or  stimulants.  The. very  first  act  of  vegetation, 
the  germination  of  seeds,  induces  this  electric  action,  this 
decomposition  of  the  elements  of  soil.  Germination  pro- 
duces carbonic  acid,  by  decomposing  water.  This  has  been 
so  abundantly  proved,  by  late  experiments  in  France,  that  it 
appears  to  be  a  good  argument  against  the  theory,  that  the 
only  action  of  humus  is  its  production  of  carbonic  acid,  to 
supply  the  wants  of  the  plant,  before  nature  has  clothed  it 
with  those  organs  of  aspiration,  the  leaves,  by  which  the 
carbonic  acid  is  withdrawn  from  the  air.  It  seems  hardly 
probable  that  nature  should  require  the  presence  of  humus 
or  geine,  merely  as  a  laboratory  of  carbonic  acid,  to  supply 
the  wants  of  the  young  plant.  The  very  first  act  of  life  in  a 
seed  is  to  evolve  carbonic  acid,  by  its  carbon  combining 
with  oxygen  of  air,  and  its  second  act  is  to  decompose 
water.  Its  oxygen  combines  with  the  carbon  of  the  seed  ; 
a  single  bean  produces  many  times  its  bulk  of  carbonic  acid 
gas,  and  in  the  soil  would  surround  itself  with  an  atmosphere 
of  carbonic  acid.  This  evolved,  begins  its  action  upon  the 
silicates.  The  living  seed  begins  the  electric  action,  and  the 
6* 


130  ACTION  OF  SALTS. 

plants  exert  and  keep  up  this  influence.  Salts  act  in  a  simi- 
lar way,  but  above  all,  over  all,  influencing  all,  is  the  living 
plant.  This  electric  action  induced,  extends  to  undetermined 
distances ;  hence  there  is  a  transfer,  as  is  usual  in  all  cases 
of  galvanic  decomposition,  of  substances  remote  from  the 
plant,  to  its  root,  where  they  are  taken  up.  It  is  uot  the 
potash  and  lime,  &c.,  immediately  in  contact  with  the  root, 
which  alone  supplies  the  plant,  but  under  the  galvanic  influ- 
ence, an  undetermined  portion  of  soil  is  decomposed.  This 
decomposing  agency  of  plants  wholly  destroys  all  confidence 
in  experiments,  undertaken  to  prove  that  pure  water  alone 
can  nourish  plants.  The  containing  vessel,  that  is  the  vessel 
in  which  the  experiment  is  made,  is  itself  always  decom- 
posed. If,  to  guard  against  an  error,  glass  is  used,  it  has 
already  been  shown  that  this  is  only  a  combination  of  sili- 
cates, and  these  will  be  transferred  from  the  glass  to  the 
plant. 

By  the  experiment  of  Weigmann  and  Polstorff,  it  ap- 
pears that  plants  constantly  discharge,  while  growing,  car- 
bonic acid  from  their  roots.  This  acid  decomposed  the 
silicates  in  a  soil,  which  had  resisted  the  action  of  nitro- 
muriath  acid.  It  eliminated  elements  from  supposed  pure 
quartz,  whose  existence  there  had  been  proved  in  no  other 
mode. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

MANURE. 

172.  THE  true  farmer,  no  less  a  sage  than  the  ancient 
orator,  who  gave  to  action,  the  first,  second,  and  third  place 
in  eloquence,  will  answer,  if  it  is  asked  him,  what  is  his  first 
requisite  1      Manure.       What   second  1      Manure.       What 
third  1     Manure.     These  answers  are  to  be  united.     Action 
and  manure  are  the  first  and  last  requisites  in  agriculture ; 
and  in  the  attempt  to  show  what  is  the  last,  and  how  it  acts, 
will  be  offered  every  inducement  to  action. 

173.  Manures  are  compounds  of  geine  and  salts.     They 
of  course  contain  the  whole  elements  of  fertility.     Having 
discussed  the  nature  and  mode  of  action  of  salts,  and  of 
geine,  the  way  is  prepared  for  the  discussion  of  manures. 
The  proportion  in  which  these  elements  exist  in  manures  is 
now  to  be  examined. 

174.  The  immense  variety  of  substances,  used  and  recom- 
mended for  manures,  would  seem  to  render  this  subject  both 
extensive  and  complicated.     It  is  capable  of  simplification. 
Manures  are  generally  considered  and  treated  of,  under  the 
division   of    animal    and   vegetable.       This    common    and 
ancient  division,  indicating  little  of  the  nature  of  manures, 
actually  confounds  those,   whose  elements    are  essentially 
alike.     Manures  arr  to  be  divided  by  their  elements,  into 
three  classes : — 

1st.  Those  consisting  chiefly  of  geine. 


132  MANURE. 

3d.  Those  consisting  chiefly  of  salts. 

3d.  Mixed,  or  consisting  of  salts  and  gcinc. 

175.  This  seems  to  be  a  rational  and  practical  node  of 
classifying  a  vast  amount  of  materials,  and  the  explanation 
of  their  action  in  classes,  is  preferable  to  a  specific  account 
of  each  individual  substance  composing  these  classes. 

17G.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  manures  belongs  to  the 
third  class.  Such  are  all  composts,  all  stable  manure,  and 
all  the  usual  products  of  the  cow-yard  and  hog-pen.  In  dis- 
cussing, therefore,  this  subject,  there  ought  to  be  some  start- 
ing point,  some  standard  common  measure  of  value,  to 
which  can  be  referred  all  manures,  and  by  which  their  worth 
can  be  determined. 

177.  In  selecting  a  manure  for  this  purpose,  if  it  can  be 
ascertained  how  much  of  geine,  what  salts,  and  in  what  pro- 
portion these  salts  enter  into  its  constitution,  what  gases  it 
evolves,  what  chemical  action  it  induces  upon  silicates,  it  will 
determine   the  relative  value  of   nil  manures ;    they  will 
approach  or  depart  from  the  standard,  in  exact  proportion  to 
the  geine  and  kind  of  salts  they  contain. 

178.  Manures,  then,  are  the  elements  of  fertility.     They 
contain  besides  the  inorganic  salts,  the  organic  elements  of 
plants,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon,  nitrogen.     The  quantity 
of  ammonia  which  each  manure  can  afford,  will  be  in  direct 
proportion  to  the  quantity  of  nitrogen  which  each  contains  ; 
and  perhaps  the  only  true  and  scientific  view  which  should 
be  taken  of  manures  is  that  which  states  their  components 
not  as  compounds,  but  as  simple  elements;    a  statement 
which  should  give  at  a  glance  the  exact  quantity  of  the  four 
organic  elements  which  enters  into  their  composition.     To  a 
limited  extent  this  can  be  done,  and  in  the  attempts  to  illus- 
trate this  subject,  this  mode  of  stating  the  value  of  manures, 
will  be  united  with  a  more  detailed  account  of  their  ingredients. 


MANURE. 


133 


179.  And  fi.-st,  for  the  choice  of  some  substance  which 
shall  form  the  type  of  manures,  and  be  considered  the  stand- 
ard of  value.     Let  it  be  pure,  fresh  fallen  cow-dung.     What 
is  its  composition '?     Water,  hay,  and  bile,  with  a  few  salts. 
The  author  has  repeatedly  analyzed  this  form  of  the  food  of 
plants,  and  it  is  found  that  the  water  is  a  very  uniform  quan- 
tity at  all  seasons  and  with  various  food.     Others  have  found 
a  few  per  cent,  less  than  that  which  \vill  be  here  stated ; 
while  some  late  and  distinguished  German  chemists  have 
given  results  agreeing  with  this  statement,  within  a  fraction 
of  one  per  cent. 

180.  The  proportions  of  organic  matter,  salts  and  water, 
in  100  Ibs.  of  cow-dung,  are — 


Water,         

83.600 

Hay,          ........ 

14.000 

Organic 
Matter. 

Bile  and  resinous  and  biliary  matter,  . 

tf 

Albumen,  ...... 

1.275 
.175 

'  Silica,         ...... 

.140 

Sulphate  of  Potash,     .... 

.050 

Geatc  of  Potash,         .... 

.070 

Salts. 

Muriate  of  Soda,         .... 

.080 

Phosphate  of  Lime,    .... 

.230 

Sulphate  of  Lime,      .... 

.120 

Carbonate  of  Lime,    .... 

.120 

99.860 

Loss,         . 

0.140 

100.000 
181.  100  parts  of  cow-dung  by  Morin's  analysis,  consist  of 

Water, 70.00 

Vegetable  fibre, 24.08 


134  MANURE. 

Green  resin  and  fat  acids,  ....  1.52 
Undecoinposed  biliary  matter,  .  .  .  0.60 
Peculiar  extractive  matter,  .  .  .  .1.60 

Albumen, 040 

Biliary  resin, 1.80 

100.00 

Morin  probably  includes  the  salts  in  the  vegetable  matter. 

182.  100  parts  of  cow-dung,  by  the  analysis  of  M.  Penot, 
in  1835,  consist  of — 

Water, 69.58 

Bitter  matter, 0.74 

Sweet  substance, 0.93 

Chlorophylle, 0.28 

Albumen, 0.63 

Muriate  of  soda, 0.08 

Sulphate  of  potash,         .                  .         .         .  0.05 

Sulphate  of  lime, 0.25 

Carbonate  of  lime, 0.24 

Phosphate  of  lime, 0.46 

Carbonate  of  iron, O.Oi) 

Woody   fibre 26.39 

Silica, 0.14 

Loss, 0.14 

100.00 

183.  Other  analyses  have  given  n  greater  amount  of 
water,  and  differ  but  little  in  that  item  from  the  experiments 
of  the  author.     Truly  this  statement  does  not  lead  one  to 
suppose,  that  a  very  good  selection  has  been  made,  in  the 
choice  of  the  standard  of  value  for  manure.     Here  is  a  sub- 
stance, 83£  per  cent,  of  which  is  pure  water.     Let  that  be 


MANURE.  135 

thrown  out  of  the  account ;  there  are  14  per  cent,  of  hay  ; 
this  is  very  little  altered,  it  seems  only  bruised  and  chopped, 
but  it  has  lost  some  of  its  albumen,  gum,  &c.  Now  the 
last  is  that  portion  of  nutriment  which  the  animal  has 
extracted  from  the  hay. 

184.  It  is  found  that  hay  which  has  thus  been   passed 
through  living  organs,  has  its  elements  much  less  disposed  to 
remain  combined,  or,  in  other  words,  decay,  that  species  of 
fermentation  which  forms  geine,  takes  place  much  more 
rapidly  in  the  hay  of  cow-dung,  than  in  common  hay.     The 
catalysis  of  life  has  impressed  its  power  of  disassociation  on 
the  hay  of  cow- dung.     The  hay  may  therefore  be  considered 
geine. 

In  the  same  class  may  be  included  the  biliary  matter, 
deducting  from  this  the  green  resin  of  hay  associated  with  it, 
and  there  remains  in  100  Ibs.  of  dung,  only  a  small  propor- 
tion of  salts  and  biliary  matter. 

The  albumen,  from  its  great  tendency  to  spontaneous  de- 
composition, .may  also  be  ranked  as  geine.  It  produces 
abundance  of  ammonia  during  decomposition,  and  probably 
is  the  great  source  of  the  evolution  of  that  gas,  during  the 
fermentation  of  cow-dung.  Its  proportion  is  very  small, 
being  only  about  a  sixth  of  one  per  cent. 

185.  Without  violence  to  chemistry,  the  composition  of 
cow-dung  may  be  stated  as  follows — 

Geine,    ........     15.45 

Salts, 0.95 

Water, 83.60 

100.00 

In  100  Ibs.  hardly  ±  of  any  value  in  agriculture !  Only 
about  £  of  cow-dung  affords  geine.  The  insoluble  is  con- 
verted to  soluble  by  the  action  of  the  evolved  ammonia. 


136  MANURE. 

Girardin  states  the  composition  thus — 

Water, 79.72 

Mutter  soluble  in  water, 5.34 

"             "      "  alcohol,         ....  2.00 

Salts, 4.23 

Fibre,    ..." 8.70 

186.  An  important  question  here  presents  itself.     How 
much  ammonia  will  100  Ibs.  of  cow-dung  produce  ?     The 
ultimate  analysis  of  this  substance,  that  is,  that  analysis 
which  gives  the  proportion  of  the  organic  elements,  is  the 
following : 

In  100  parts  of  cow-dung, — 

Nitrogen, .505 

Carbon, .204 

Hydrogen, 824 

Oxygen, 4.818 

187.  From  these  data  may  be  calculated  how  much  am- 
monia will  be  formed  ;  for  one  part  of  nitrogen  unites  with 
three  parts  of  hydrogen,  to  form  ammonia,  or  in  the  atomic 
proportions  by  weight : 

14  of  nitrogen,  or  1  equivalent. 
3  of  hydrogen,  or  3  equivalents. 

17  of  real  or  pure  ammonia,  or  1  equivalent. 

100  parts  of  fresh  fallen  cow-dung  will  afford,  therefore, 
0.007,  or  £  of  a  pound,  nearly,  of  pure  ammonia,  or  2.18 
Iba.,  or  about  2  Ibs.  2  oz.  of  bi-carbonate  of  ammonia  of  the 
shops,  called  sal-volatile,  or  salts  of  hartshorn,  the  carbonic 
acid  and  water  being  44  parts  to  17  of  ammonia. 

188.  Cow-dung,  then,  the  type  of  manures,  resolves  itself 
into  geine  free  alkali  and  salts.     The  salts,  considering  the 


MANURE.  137 

nitrogen  as  carbonate  of  ammonia  of  the  shops,  will  form 
about  3  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  dung  ;  or  a  bushel  of 
86  Ibs.  will  contain,  in  round  numbers,  2|  Ibs.  of  salts  of 
ammonia,  potash,  soda  and  lime. 

189.  The  cow,  then,  is  the  great  manufacturer  of  salts  and 
geine,  and  it  is  a  question  of  the  highest  interest,  What  is  the 
daily  produce  of  her  manufactory  ?  In  order  to  determine 
this,  the  following  experiment  was  conducted  with  great 
care,  at  the  barn  connected  with  the  print-works  of  the  Mer- 
rimack  manufacturing  company,  in  Lowell.  A  single  cow, 
being  only  an  average  producer  of  the  article  in  question, 
was  selected  from  the  50  cows  usually  kept  at  the  establish- 
ment. She  was  fed  as  usual,  and  as  the  other  cows  were. 
The  food  and  water  were  accurately  weighed  for  seven  days. 
She  consumed,  in  this  period, 

Water,      612  Ibs. 

Potatoes,     87   " 

Hay,          167    " 

Total,        866    "     food    and    drink,    and 
voided,  free  from  her  liquid  evacuations,  599  Ibs.  of  dung. 

From  the  facts  which  have  been  now  stated,  it  is  evident 
that  one  cow  prepares,  daily,  from  24  Ibs.  of  hay,  and  12|- 
Ibs.  of  potatoes,  about  one  bushel,  or  85.57  Ibs.  of  dung. 
This  affords  only  14.04  Ibs.  of  solid  manure,  composed  of 
salts  and  of  hay,  so  acted  on  by  the  digestive  organs,  as  to 
form  geine,  when  united  with  ammonia,  produced  by  putre- 
faction. 

One  cow  daily  forms,  therefore,  about 
13  Ibs.  geine. 

i    "     say  3  oz.  of  bone-dust,  or  phosphate  of  lime. 
TL    "     say  H  oz.  of  plaster  of  Paris,  or  sulphate  of  lime. 
jts   "     say  li  oz.  of  chalk,  or  carbonate  of  lime. 


138  MANURE. 

Or  per  year : 

4800  Ibs.  of  geine, 
71    "   of  bone-dust, 
37   "   of  plaster, 

37   "   of  limestone,  marble,  or  chalk,    » 
25   "   of  common  salt, 
15   "   of  sulphate  of  potash. 

This  is  the  product  of  one  cow.  A  cord  of  green  cow- 
dung,  pure  as  dropped,  would  be  formed,  daily,  by  108  cows. 
A  cord  of  dung  weighs  9289  Ibs.,  which,  -f-  86  Ibs.  (or  1 
cow,)  =  108  cows.  And  one  cow  daily  produces,  in  excre- 
ments, salts  of  lime  sufficient  for  4i  bushels  of  corn. 

190.  Multiply  the  quantity  produced  by  one  cow,  by  the 
number  of  cows  kept,  and  it  may  easily  be  calculated  how 
much  salts  and  geine  are  annually  applied  to  soil  in  this 
form.     This  is  better  done  than  the  estimate  by  cords  or 
loads.     The  manure  from  one  cow  is  a  definite  comprehen- 
sible quantity. 

191.  Estimating  the   nitrogen  as  ammonia,  the  yearly 
product  of  one  cow  is  156  Ibs.  of  nitrogen,  equal  to  189  Ibs. 
of  pure  ammonia,  or  equal  to  677  Ibs.  of  bi-carbonate  of 
ammonia  of  the  shops.     A  single  cow  will  therefore  give, 
annually,  fed  on  hay  and  potatoes,  31,025  Ibs.  of  dung,  con- 
taining 

4800  Ibs.  of  geme, 

C77  "   of  carbonate  of  ammonia, 

7!  "    of  bone-dust, 

37  "   of  plaster, 

37  "   of  chalk, 

24  "  of  common  salt, 

15  "   of  sulphate  of  potash. 


MANURE.  139 

192.  It  is  perfectly  evident,  from  this  view,  that  the  main 
agricultural  value  depends  on  the  ammonia  or  nitrogen,  and 
the  geine.     The  lime,  in  its   forms  of  salts,  goes  but  little 
way  towards  this  value,  yet  valuable,  so  far  as  they  exist. 
It  is  evident,  from  section  74,  that  the  lime  in  the  above 
salts  of  lime,  the  annual  product  of  one  cow,  is  sufficient  to 
supply  the  grain  and  straw  of  a  crop  of  140  bushels  of  rye. 

193.  If  these,  then,  are  the  elements  of  plants  which  are 
found  in   cow-dung,  is   it  to  the  organic  or  the  inorganic 
portion  that  the  enriching  power  is  due  1     The  great  value 
of  dung  as  a  manure,  has  been  supposed  to  be  due  to  its 
animal  matter.     The  common  idea  of  animal  matter    in- 
includes  substances  which  contain  much  nitrogen,  but  is  it  to 
the  nitrogen,  or  to  salts,  that  the  chief  value  of  manure  is 
clue  ?     To  the  nitrogen,  chiefest  and  first,  and  that,  too,  as  it 
exists  in  the  albuminous  portion  of  dung.     The  nitrogen  of 
the  hay  contributes  very  little  to  the  value  of  manure.     The 
hay  furnishes  the  geine.    That  it  is  the  nitrogen  of  dung  only, 
the  part  not  contained  in  the  hay,  which  evolves  ammonia, 
is  evident ;  for  if  the  nitrogen  of  the  hay  only,  was  the  essen- 
tial element  of  dung,  then  hay,  which  contains  about  one  per 
cent,  of  nitrogen,  could  supply  its  place  :  50  pounds  would  be 
equal   to   100  pounds  of  dung.     It  is  well  known  that  such 
effect  is  never  produced  by  planting  on  hay. 

194.  It  is  not  to  the  nitrogen  only,  in  dung,  to  which  can 
be  referred  the  action  of  this   manure.     It  depends  on  its 
other  elements,  salts  and  geine.     The  action  of  nitrogen  is 
referred   to  its  power  of  forming  ammonia,  and  this  then 
acts  in  two   ways.      First,  upon  geine,  or  the  hay  part ; 
secondly,  upon  silicates.  First,  it  is  a  powerful  alkali.    Now 
it  has  been  shown  that  all  alkaline  earths  convert  insoluble 
into  soluble  geine.     Secondly,  it  is  a  well-established  fact, 
that  the  production  of  nitre  is  not  necessarily  dependent  on 


140  MANURE. 

the  presence  of  animal  matter ;  under  the  influence  of  porous 
materials,  aided  by  alkalies,  or  lime,  the  elements  of  air 
combine  and  form  nitric  acid  and  nitrates,  when  bases  are 
present  This  action  is  greatly  assisted  by  ammonia,  which 
acts  by  catalysis.  The  great  use  of  the  animal  matter  is  to 
produce  this  alkali,  or  ammonia.  If  no  alkaline  base  is 
present,  it  becomes  the  source  of  the  formation  of  nitrate  of 
ammonia.  This  salt  being  decomposed  by  the  living  plant, 
its  nitric  acid  acts  on  the  silicates,  and  saltpetre  or  nitrate  of 
potash  is  produced.  The  agency  of  this,  as  a  manure,  has 
already  been  considered  .(167,  168).  The  action,  also,  of 
other  salts  in  dung,  will  be  easily  understood  by  reference 
to  the  fifth  chapter. 

195.  There  is  still  a  powerful  effect  due  to  the  geine,  or 
to  the  hay  in  its  conversion  to  that  state.     During  this  pro- 
cess, a  great  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  is  liberated.     The 
decomposing  action  of  this  upon  silicates  of  the  soil,  and  the 
consequent  liberation  of  their  alkali,  has  also  been  explained 
(133).    All  these  actions  are  to  be  remembered,  in  account- 
ing for  the  action  of  cow-dung.     The  geine,  salts,  nitrogen, 
each  acts ;  the  geine  has  an  action,  the  salts  an  action,  the 
nitrogen  an  action.     They  all.  con  tribute  to  one  end.     Three 
substances,  but  one  result,  viz.,  vegetation. 

196.  The  nitrogen,  then,  in  dung,  is  that  organic  element 
to  which  must  be  attributed  its  chief  enriching  quality.    The 
nitrogen  is  the  basis,  both  of  the  production  of  ammonia, 
and  of  the  formation  of  nitrates.     Hence,  the  quantity  of 
nitrogen  in  manures  will  form  a  very  good  element  for  the 
estimation  of  their  value.     Manures  will  be  found  rich,  in 
proportion  to  their  quantity  of  nitrogen,  or  their  power  of 
forming  nitrates.     This  is  the  great  and  first  cause  of  the 
enriching  power  of  dung.     Though  the  action  of  all  excre- 
ments has  been  referred  to  their  inorganic  parts  only,  com- 


MANURE.  141 

mon  experience  tends  to  the  explanation  which  has  been 
given  of  the  joint  action  of  all  their  parts. 

197.  The  source  of  nitrogen  in  dung  is  an  interesting  ques- 
tion.    It  is  evident  that  it  must  have  been  introduced  into 
the  animal's  system  by  the  food,  perhaps  also  by  the  drink ; 
for  all  water   contains   absorbed   air,  of  course,  nitrogen. 
Hence,  the  kind  of  food  greatly  influences  the  amount  of 
nitrogen  in  dung. 

198.  If  a  cow  assimilated  all   the  nitrogen  of  her  hay, 
25  Ibs.  of  hay  would  increase  her  weight   daily,  by  about 
8  Ibs. ;  but  no  one  expects  such  a  result,  and  the  balance  of 
the  nitrogen  goes  off  in  milk,  or  in  liquid  excretions.    Hence, 
a  milch  cow  fats  not.    So  long  as  a  greater  part  of  the  nitro 
gen  is  voided  by  milk  or  otherwise,  a  cow  fats  not.     If  she 
is  not  parting  with  nitrogen  in  milk,  a  greater  portion  goes 
off  in  dung.    Hence,  a  common  observation,  that  the  manure 
of  fattening  cattle  is  richer  than  that  of  milch  cows,  or  of 
cattle  not  fattening. 

199.  The  difference  in  the  quantity  of  bile,  slime,  &c.,  in 
a  cow  fed  on  hay  or  on  meal,  is  not  very  great.    A  cow  was 
fed  six  days  on  meal  and  water.     She  consumed  in  this 
period, 

Indian  meal,  96  Ibs.,  or  per  day  16  Ibs. 
Hay,  30   "  "         5    " 

Water,         330   "  "       55   " 


76  Ibs, 

There  were  voided  during  this  period  330  Ibs.  of  dung,  or 
55  Ibs.  daily.  She  scoured  and  lost  flesh.  The  evacuation 
had  all  the  appearance  of  night  soil,  and  soon  evolved  a  great 
quantity  of  ammonia,  and  though  covered  in  an  earthen  pot, 
was  soon  studded  with  a  crop  of  exquisitely  beautiful  fungi. 
Compared  with  hay  dung,  its  composition  was, 


142  MANURE. 

Geine,  17.43,  14.45  in  common  dung. 

Salts,        .93,  .95         "  " 

Water,  81.04,  83.60         "  " 

Probably  the  nitrogen  was  2£  per  cent.,  or  five  times  that 
of  common  cow-dung. 

200.  Doubtless  the  value  of  nil  excrements  will  depend 
somewhat  upon  the  food  of  the  animal,  and'the  manner  of 
feeding.    It  may  be  stated  as  a  general  fact,  that  the  manure 
of  cattle,  summer-soiled,   is  nearly  twice   the   strength  of 
that  from  the  stalls  in  winter;    and  all  fattening  cattle, 
whether  in  winter  or  summer,  produce,  as  has  been  stated, 
a  still  richer  vegetable  food.    Animals  fattening  on  oil  cake, 
gave  manure,  12  loads  of  which  exceeded  in  value  of  crops 
raised,  24  of  common  stock.     These  remarks  show,  that 
some  allowance  is  to  be  made  for  the  food.     The  standard 
refers  only  to  hay  and  potatoes.     But  the  value  due  to  dif- 
ferent food,  may  not  be  so  great  as  is  commonly  supposed. 
The  actual  amount  of  nitrogen,  even  where  vegetable  and 
animal  food  is  concerned,  is  not  materially  different.     There 
were  two  dogs,  which  were  fed,  the  one  on  vegetable,  the 
other  on  animal  food ;  at  the  appointed  time,  these  animals 
were  sacrificed  on  the  altar  of  physiological  experiment,  and 
the  chyle  examined.     The  following  were  the  results : 

Vegetable  Food.  Animal  Food 

Water,        .        .         .  '  93.00  .        .  89.02 

Fibrine,       ...  .06  ..  .08 

Albumen,    .        .         .  4.6  .         .  4.7 

Salts,  ....  .8  .7 

These  fare  the  sources  of  ammonia,  if  the  chyle  had  been 
allowed  to  putrefy. 

201.  The  ammonia  in  dung,  as  has  boon  explained,  is  the 
source  both  of  the  rapid  conversion  of  the  hay  into  soluble 


MANURE.  143 

geine,  and  of  nitrates.  The  action  of  unfermented  dung 
needs  no  explanation  after  this  exposition.  The  geine,  the 
salts,  carbonic  acid,  and  ammonia,  must  be  formed  among 
the  silicates  and  roots  of  plants  on  which  they  are  to  act. 

202.  Having  determined  the  mode  of  expressing  the  value 
of  manures,  and  fixing  the  standard  of  value,  other  manures 
containing  salts  and  geine,  may  now  be  compared  with  that, 
and  their  value  determined,  by  detailing  their  constituents. 

203.  Horse-dung  contains  : 

Water, 71.20 

Hay,  bile,  and  slime,        .         .         .         .27. 
Silica, 64 

Phosphate  of  lime,  ....         .08 

Carbonate  of  lime,  ....         .30 

Phosphate  of  magnesia  and  soda,      .         .         .58 

Loss, 20 


100.00 

The  food  of  the  horse  will  of  course  affect  these  results, 
and  hence  there  is  found  a  great  discrepancy  in  the  amount 
of  the  elements,  at  different  times. 

Girardin's  analysis  of  horse-dung  affords  : 

Water, 78.36 

Matters  soluble  in  water,          .         .         .  4.34 

"             alcohol,        .         .  2.60 

Vegetable  fibre,        ....  12.86 

Salts, 2.34 

Boussingault  found  that  the  following  was  the  composi- 
tion of  the  dung  of  a  horse  fed  on  hay  and  oats : 


144  MANURE. 

Water, 75.31 

Geine, 20.57 

Salts,  .                          .                 .  4.02 


100. 
The  organic  portion,  or  the  geine,  gave, 

Carbon, 9  56 

Hydrogen, 1.20 

Oxygen, 0.31 

Nitrogen, 54 

Horse-dung  quickly  ferments.  It  should  be  immediately 
removed  and  composted  with  cattle-dung,  or  sprinkled  with 
plaster.  It  loses  in  a  month,  at  least  one-third  of  its  weight 
by  fermentation. 

204.  Expressing  the  value  compared  with  cow-dung,  we 
have — 

Geine,    . 27. 

Salts, 96 

Water, 71.20 

The  geine,  then,  is  nearly  double  that  in  cow-dung,  and 
the  salts,  which  are  mostly  phosphates  of.  lime,  magnesia, 
and  soda,  are  about  the  same.  If  the  nitrogen  is  regarded, 
it  is  found  about  50  per  cent,  greater  than  in  cow-dung. 
Hence,  during  the  chemical  actions  of  the  production  of  am- 
monia and  nitrates,  if  the  heat  is  in  proportion  to  that  action 
we  may  possibly  assign  a  reason,  why  horse-dung  is  a  hotter 
manure  than  cow-dung.  The  nitrogen  in  horse-dung  is 
about  £  of  one  per  cent.,  or  this  manure  contains,  in  100 
parts : 

Geine, 27. 

Salts, .         .         .96 

Carbonate  of  ammonia 3.24 


MANURE.  145 

But  though  horse-dung  is  considered  as  a  hotter  manure 
than  cow-dung,  this  is  true  of  horse-dung  only  in  its  fresh 
state.  Fermented  horse-manure  is  really  of  less  value  than 
cow-dung.  This  is  the  voice  of  experience.  Thrown  out 
with  the  litter,  and  moistened  as  it  is  with  little  urine,  com- 
pared with  that  of  cattle  dung  from  the  barn,  it  rapidly  fer- 
ments and  decays.  By  the  time  horse-manure  has  ferment- 
ed, so  as  to  be  converted  into  a  uniform  mass  of  muck,  it 
loses,  at  least,  nine-tenths  of  its  weight,  and  nearly  two-thirds 
of  its  nitrogen  has  disappeared.  Hence,  without  care,  horse- 
dung  rapidly  loses  its  value.  Now  this  quick  heating  is 
owing  to  the  ready  decomposition  of  the  dry  droppings; 
and  if  these  are  kept  properly  moistened,  a  manure  is  pro- 
duced when  the  horse-dung  is  half-rotted,  which  is  fully 
equal  to  cow-manure.  It  has  ever  required  much  manage- 
ment to  get  good  yard-manure  from  horse-stables.  The  pile 
should  be  broad,  well  trodden  down,  and  kept  constantly 
moist  with  water.  Each  layer,  as  it  is  formed,  should  be 
sprinkled  with  a  little  ground  plaster. 

All  the  water  which  drains  from  the  heap  should  run  into 
a  pit  and  be  mixed  with  a  little  plaster,  and  returned  upon 
the  pile. 

In  the  course  of  two  or  three  months,  a  rich  pasty  manure 
may  be  thus  formed,  equal  to  the  best  farm-yard  manure 
from  cattle. 

The  evacuations  of  cattle  and  horses  are  usually  mixed  in 
the  farm-yard.  These,  with  the  litter,  form  yard-manure. 
The  nature  of  the  litter,  fermentation  and  age  affect  the 
quality  and  quantity  of  yard-manure.  This  causes  its 
practical  division  into  long  and  short,  or  strawy  and  fat 
muck. 

Age  reduces  the  quantity  of  fresh  manure  nearly  as  fol- 
lows.    It  has  been  found  by  one  observer,  that, 
7 


146  MANURE. 

100  load*  low  in  bulk,  in    81  day*,  26.7,  or  become  73.3 
"  "  254     "       86.7          "          04.3 

«  •*  884    '«       87.5          "          82.6 

"  "  803    "       62.8          "          478 

Or  to  state  the  result  differently  from  another  source,  25 
cwt.,  recent  dung  yield, 

At  the  end  of  six  weeks,        .         .         .         .21  cwt. 

After  eight  weeks, 20    " 

When  half  rotted,        .        .        .         .    15  to  17    " 
When  fully  rotted,        .         .         .         .    10  to  13    " 

Turning  our  attention  to  the  quality  of  yard-manure,  it 
has  been  found  that  the  composition  of  that  six  months  old 
is  per  100  parts  : 

Water, .     79.30 

Organic  matter,       .         .         .         .         .         .     14.03 

Salts,     .  6.67 


100.00 

lioutringault. 

Cattle  only  afforded  yard-manure  of  the  following  compo- 
sition, per  100  parts : 

Water, 75. 

Albumen,  urea,  slime,  bile,    } 

sweet  and  extractive  matter,    S  Soluble  in  water, 

salts,  potash,  and  soda,              ) 
Resins  and  fatty  matter,       ) 
Starch,     ....[•  Insoluble  in  water,  j 
Salts  of  lime  and  magnesia,  )                                J 
Vegetable  fibre 20. 

100. 

Richardson  of  Newcastle,  England,  has  also  Determined 
the  composition  of  yard  manure.  His  results  are  as  fol 
lows: 


•  >. 


MANURE. 


147 


Fresh,  ready  for  the  field.                   Ashes  eonsifct  of 

Water,    .        .     64.96 

Potash,  .       .         .        . 

3.22] 

Organic  matter,    28.71 

Soda,   .... 

2.73         5 

Salts,                     10.33 

Lime.  .... 

0.34     „  J2 

7 

Dried,  at  202'. 

Magnesia,     . 

0.26  f  |  § 

Carbon,  .          .     37.40 

Sulphuric  acid,     . 

3.27     •?  §£ 

Hydrogen,       .      5.27 
Oxygen,  .         .     25.52 

Chlorine, 
Silica,  . 

3.15 

0.04  J       5< 

Nitrogen,         .       1.76 

Silica,  .... 

27.01  1 

Ashes,     .        .    30.05 

Phosphate  of  lime, 

7.11         § 

"     magnesia, 

2.26          § 

"     iron, 

4.68 

"    mangan.  trace, 

P  cr 

Carbonate  of  lime, 

9.34  1  pi  2 

"     magnesia, 

1.63      '    g 

Sand,   .... 

30.99         a 

Carbon, 

.83 

Alkali  and  loss,     . 

3.14  J       5' 

Soubeiran  has  recently  examined  farm-yard  manure,  about 
to  be  laid  on  the  field.  It  was  made  from  the  dung  of  the 
horse-stables,  cow-houses,  sheep-folds,  and  pig  styes,  at  Grig- 
non,  heaped  up,  and  wetted  with  urine.  It  was  not  rotted 
so  much  as  to  form  fat  muck,  and  contained  30.6  per  cent, 
dry  dung.  The  fresh  dung  contained  per  1000  parts  : 

Water, 694. 

Organic  matters,  ......  192. 

Soluble  alkaline  salts, 8.75 

Carbonate  of  lime  and  magnesia,  .  .       17.50 

Sulphate  of  lime, 13.13 

Ammonia-phosphate  of  magnesia,  .  .  ,  11.50 
Phosphates,  principally  of  lime,  .  .  .  4.65 
Earthy  matters, 66.47 

The  quantity  of  nitrogen  was  13.91,  which  was  divided, 
thus: 


148  MANURE. 

Nitrogen  of  the  soluble  ammoniacal  salts, .  .  1.67 
Do.  of  the  ammonia-phosphate  oC  magnesia,  .64 
Do.  of  the  organic  matter,  T  .  .11.60 

13.91 

It  will  be  noted,  that  Soubeiran  finds  a  much  larger  per 
centage  of  nitrogen  in  manure  than  other  analysts.  He  ob- 
jects to  the  estimates  usually  made,  because  these  have 
been  founded  on  dry  manure,  which  thus  has  lost  ammo- 
nia by  its  salts  being  decomposed  by  the  carbonate  of  lime 
present.  Fresh  dung  loses  thus  by  drying  £  of  its  ammo- 
nia. Hence,  the  equivalent  of  poudrette  and  all  fermented 
manures  is  generally  placed  much  too  low,  when  calculated 
on  their  nitrogen  only.  Taking  into  view  all  the  circum- 
stances which  affect  the  nitrogen  in  yard-manure,  the  quan- 
tity must  vary  exceedingly  ;  but  it  has  been  estimated  by 
Payen  and  Boussingault  to  be  0.41  per  cent. ;  hence  its  car- 
bonate of  ammonia  becomes  equal  to  about  1.78  Ib.  in  each 
100  Ibs.  The  weights  of  equal  bulks  of  ox  and  horse-dung, 
from  the  barn  yard  and  stable,  as  usually  prepared,  are  as 
follows : 

Ox-manure,  old  and  fat,  one  cubic  foot  weighs  58  Ibs. 

Do.       fresh,  M  "       48    " 

Horse-manure,  old  and  fat,  "  "       39     " 

Do.  fresh,  "  "       30     " 

It  has  been  ascertained  that  an  ox  in  France  affords  5,600 
Ibs.,  and  a  horse  and  a  half,  or  ten  to  fifteen  sheep,  an  equal 
amount  of  yard-manure  per  year. 

But  yard-manure  too  often  is  exposed  to  rain.  Its  salts 
are  thus  washed  out,  or  the  natural  liquids  mixed  with  it 
drain  away,  and  are  thus  lost.  It  is  a  positive  money -loss, 
for  the  composition  of  an  imperial  gallon  of  this  muck-water, 


MANURE.  149 

as  determined   by   Johnston,   in   two   sauples,   is   as   fol- 
lows: 


From  cow-dung  washed    From  yard-dung  watered 
by  rain.  with  OOW'B  urine. 


l°Ammonia,      ....  9.60  grs. .     .     .     23.30  grs. 

Solid  organic  matter,    .       200.80    "...     77.60    " 
Solid  inorganic  or  ashes,     268.80    "...  518.40    " 


479.20  grs.  617.30  grs. 

2°  The   ashes  of  a  gallon 

consisted  of  alkal.  salts,     .     207.80  grs.  420.40  grs. 

Phosphate  of  lime  and  ] 

magnesia,    with     a    little  j.    25.10    "...     44.50    " 
phosphate  of  iron, 

Carbonate  of  lime,     .     .     18.20    "...     31.10    " 
"     magn.  and  loss,  .       4.30    "...       3.40    " 

Silica  and  a  little  alumina,    13.40    "...     19.00    " 


268.80  518.40 

These  results  speak  for  themselves.  They  show  rills  of 
wealth  gushing  from  the  farmer's  manure,  which  no  prudent 
man  will  allow  to  run  to  waste.  It  is  the  concentrated  food, 
organic  and  inorganic,  of  plants,  all  which  they  need. 

205.  Human  excrement  has  been  analyzed  by  Berzelius. 

In  its  pure  state,  its  composition  may  be  thus  stated  : 

Water, 75.3 

Geine,      ....  ...     23.5 

Salts, 1.2 

Nearly  three-fourths  of  the  salts  are  composed  of  carbon- 
ate, muriate  and  sulphate  of  soda,  the  remainder  is  composed 
of  phosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia ;  the  latter  is  particu- 
larly abundant  in  feces.  The  average  quantity  of  nitrogen  is 


150  MANURE. 

about  3^  per  cent.     Human  excrement  contains,  per  100 
parts  : 

Geine, 23. 

Salts, 1.2 

Carbonate  of  ammonia, 15.32 

A  later  analysis  of  human  excrement  has  been  made  by 
Fleitmann  in  Rose's  laboratory.  The  feces  of  a  young  man, 
in  health,  for  four  days,  dried  at  212°  F.,  weighed  2607 
grains,  or  nearly  six  ounces.  In  100  parts  of  the  salts  or 
inorganic  constituents  were, 

Chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt),  .  .  .  0.58 
Chloride  of  potassium,  .....  0.07 
Potash,  and  hydrate  of  potash, ....  22.49 

Soda, 0.75 

Lime, 21.36 

Magnesia, 10.67 

Peroxide  of  iron, 2.09 

Phosphoric  acid 30.98 

Sulphuric  acid, 1.13 

Silica, 1.44 

Carbonic  acid, 1.05 

Sand 7.39 

The  sand  was  supposed  to  have  been,  in  part,  swallowed 
during  the  time  while  the  young  man  was  in  exercise  in  the 
fields  near  Berlin. 

The  potash  existed  in  combination  partly  with  an  organic 
substance  in  the  feces,  which  acted  as  an  acid.  The  quantity 
of  phosphate  of  magnesia  is  remarkable,  and  all  the  phos- 
phates are  composed  of  three  of  base  to  one  of  acid. 

Tin-  urine  was  separately  collected.  Its  inorganic  stilts 
exceeded  daily  more  than  six  and  one-third  times  those  of 


MANURE.  151 

the  solid  feces.  Now,  the  mixture  of  urine  and  feces,  the 
fluids  and  solids,  is  known  under  the  name  of  night  soil.  No 
substance  is  more  varied  in  composition,  depending  as  it 
does  upon  the  food  and  habits  of  those  whose  accumulations 
are  removed  from  their  usual  receptacle.  A  French  farmer 
found  to  his  cost,  that  the  night  soil  of  a  Parisian  restaura- 
teur was  much  superior  to  that  of  the  Parisian  military  bar- 
racks. The  former  was  a  very  rich  manure,  the  latter 
almost  worthless. 

A  family  consisting  of  three  men  from  29  to  60  years  of 
age,  of  one  woman,  from  30  to  35  years,  and  a  boy  from  6 
to  8  years,  will  ordinarily  produce,  daily,  about  18  pounds 
of  excrements,  consisting  of 

Urine,  12.25  Ibs.  Feces,  5.75  Ibs. 

COSTAIX1SO 

Dry  organic  matter, .     2560  grains.  1550  grains. 

Nitrogen,          .         .       750      "  142      " 

Chlorine,.         .         .       249      "  traces. 

Salts,        .         .         .675      "  320      " 

The  salts  are  composed,  according  to  the  analysis  of  the 
ashes  of  urine  and  feces  by  Prof.  J.  A.  Porter,  as  follows : 

Urine.  Feces. 

Potash,          .  .  .     13.64  6.10 

Soda,     .         .  .  .1.33  5.07 

Lime,    ....       1.15  26.46 

Magnesia,      .  .  .1.34  10.54 

Peroxide  of  iron,  .  .     trace.  2.50 

Phosphoric  acid,  .  .     11.21  36.03 

Sulphuric  acid,  .  .       4.06  3.13 

Carbonic  acid,  .         ,        5.07 

Common  salt,  .  .     67.26  4.33 

Allowing  each  person  of  the  family  named  above,  by  ab- 


152  MANURE. 

sence  and  other  causes,  to  omit  sixty-five  days  in  a  year,  the 
contribution  to  this  domestic  savings  bank,  the  deposits  will 
amount,  annually,  to  3682  pints  of  urine,  and  1650  pounds 
of  solid  excrements,  containing  10  Ibs.  of  chlorine,  42  lb*. 
of  salts,  176  Ibs.  dry  organic  matter.  In  the  last  there  arc 
38  pounds  of  nitrogen  ;  this  is  equal  to  forming  46  Ibs.  of  pure 
ammonia,  or  119  Ibs.  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  of  the  shops. 
Hog-manure,  in  its  characters,  approaches  night-soil  suf- 
ficiently, to  be  ranked  with  it  for  the  present  purpose.  It  is 
the  manure  of  fattening  swine  only  which  is  to  be  classed 
with  night-soil.  The  estray  and  running  animals  produce 
only  a  "  cold  "  manure  of  little  value.  The  manure  of  the 
penned  animal  is  always  combined  with  his  liquid  evacuation. 
This,  whose  value  is  stated  (247),  gives  hog-manure  a  value 
which  places  it  with  night-soil. 

Boussingault  found  in  recent  hog-dung — water  81,  nitro- 
gen, 0.63,  in  one  hundred  parts,  nearly  as  much  as  'in  horse- 
dung,  and  from  the  experiments  of  Schwerts,  hog-dung  ap- 
pears superior  to  that  of  the  cow. 

Sheep-dung  may  be  placed  with  night-soil  and  hog-manure. 
Sheep  may  be  said  to  digest  better  than  cattle.  They  cut 
their  food  finer,  and  chew  it  better  ;  they  void  thus  less  veg- 
etable fibre.  Their  excrement  is  more  converted  into  geine. 
Fed  on  hay  alone,  their  excrement  is  composed  of: 

-Water, 67.9 

Bilious  and  extractive  matter,    ...  1.7 

Humus  with  slime, 12  8 

Hay  and  vegetable  matter,        .         .  .       8.0 

Silica,      ......  .6.0 

Carbonate  and  phosphate  of  lime,       .         .         .      2.0 
Carbonate,  sulphate,  and  muriate  of  soda,  .         .     - 1 .6 

100.0 

Sfrtng,L 


MANURE.  153 

Others  have  found 

Water, 68.74 

Matter  soluble  in  water, .....  4.40 

Matter  soluble  in  alcohol,         ....  2.82 

Vegetable  fibre,      ......  16.26 

Salts, 8.13 


100.35 

Girardin 

The  salts  were  composed  of  phosphate  of  lime  and  m&g- 
nesia,  carbonate  of  lime,  silicate  of  potash,  common  salt  and 
silex. 

The  nitrogen  is  abundant,  and  the  amount  of  matter  con- 
taining this,  nearly  three-fifths  greater  than  that  of  cattle- 
dung.  The  whole  is  finer  divided,  and  hence  speedily 
putrefies,  and  evolves  ammonia.  It  is  thus  one  of  the  hot- 
test of  all  manures.  But  containing,  as  it  does,  little  water, 
and  being  in  fine  compact  balls,  air  cannot  act  upon  it  as  it 
would  upon  cow-dung.  Hence,  unless  moisture  is  present, 
sheep-dung  undergoes  little  change.  Great  care  is  required 
in  its  use.  Its  ammonia  is  abundant;  hence,  if  uncombined 
with  geine,  it  burns  up  the  crops.  Hence,  when  there  is 
little  geine,  little  sheep-dung  must  be  used.  Where  the 
soil  is  wet,  and  that  too  with  little  vegetable  matter  in  it, 
there  decomposition  rapidly  occurs,  and  the  virtue  of  the 
dung,  its  ammonia,  is  lost. 

It  is  said  that  1000  sheep,  folded  on  an  acre  of  ground  one 
day,  would  manure  it  sufficiently  to  feed  1001  sheep,  if  their 
manure  could  all  be  saved.  So  that,  by  this  process,  land 
which  can,  the  first  year,  feed  only  1000  sheep,  may  the  next 
year,  by  their  own  droppings,  feed  1365.  So  said  Ander- 
son, forty  years  ago  (Rural  Essays).  Sprengel  allows  that 
the  manure  of  1400  sheep,  for  one  day,  is  equal  to  manuring 
7* 


154  MANURE. 

highly,  one  acre  of  land.  This  is  about  four  sheep  per  year. 
In  France,  it  is  allowed  that  one  sheep  manures  about  10^ 
feet  square  of  land  per  night. 

206.  Thus,  the  most  common  substances  used  for  manure, 
cow,  horse,  hog-dung,  and  night-soil,  are  reduced  to  geine, 
salts,  and  carbonate  of  ammonia,  or  nitrogen,  its  equivalent. 
It  need  not  be  said  that  the  experience  of  ages  has  proved 
that  these  varieties  of  manure  possess  very  different  fertiliz- 
ing properties.  These  depend,  not  on  the  salts  alone,  whose 
amount  and  quality  is  nearly  the  same  in  all ;  nor  on  the 
geine,  for  that  is  nearly  the  same  in  human  and  horse  excre- 
ment. Their  fertilizing  power,  then,  depends  not,  as  has 
been  asserted,  on  the  salts  which  would  render  their  agricul- 
cultural  value  equal.  All  experience  would  prove  such  an 
assertion  unfounded.  But  it  is  said  that  their  relative  value 
depends  on  their  power  of  producing  ammonia. 

If  the  value  of  manure  depended  on  its  salts  only,  then  its 
ashes  alone  would  be  as  effectual  as  the  manure.  Perhaps 
no  experiment  determines  this  question  more  satisfactorily, 
than  that  of  Mr.  Lawes,  in  England.  28  tons  of  yard  ma- 
nure were  divided  equally ;  14  tons  were  burned  to  ashes, 
and  afforded  32  cwt.  The  manure,  14  tons,  and  the  32  cwt. 
of  ashes  were  applied,  each  to  one  acre  of  land,  and  one  acre 
of  the  same  land  was  left  unmanured.  The  crops  were  as 
follows : 

1.  Manure,  1276  Ibs.  dressed  wheat,  or  22  bushels. 

2.  Ashes  of  manure,   888   "        "  "          16      " 

3.  No  manure,  923   "        "  "          16      " 

Straw  and  chaff: 

1.  1476  Ibs. 

2.  1104  « 

3.  1120   u 


MANURE.  155 

Increase  ot  grain  by  manure,  No.  3  being  =  1000. 

1.  1382  Ibs. 

2.  962   " 

Increase  of  straw,  by  manure  : 

1;  1381  Ibs. 
2.     985   " 

It  is  evident  that  the  salts  alone  of  manure  do  not  meet 
the  wants  of  the  farmer. 

Numerous  experiments,  proving  the  inefficacy  of  salts 
without  nitrogenous  and  organic  matters,  might  here  be  cited. 
They  would  confirm  only  the  experience  of  practical  farmers. 
It  may  be  useful  to  state  what  is  the  composition  of  the 
ashes  of  several  excrements,  as  determined  by  Mr.  J.  Rogers. 

Pig.  Cow.          Sheep.         Horse. 

Silex 13.19  62.54  50.41  62.40 

Potash,        ....  3.60  2.91  8.32  11.30 

Soda,          ....  3.44  0.98  3.28  1.98 

Chlor.  sodium,     .         .         .  0.89  0.23  0.14  0.03 

Phos.  sesqui  ox.  iron,  .         .  10.55  8.93  3.98  2.73 

Lime,          ....  2.03  5.71  18.15  4.63 

Magnesia,   .'                 .         .  2.24  11.47  5.45  3.84 

Acid,  phosphoric,         .         .  0.41  4.76  7.52  8.93 

"     sulphuric,  .         .         .  0.90  1.77  2.69  1.83 

"     carbonic,    .         .         .  0.60  2.13 

Sand,           ....  61.37 

When  it  is  said  that  nitrogen  measures  the  value  o.  ma- 
nure, it  must  be  remembered  that  the  nitrogen  should  exist 
us  ammonia,  or  in  a  state  of  combination  which  permits  its 
ready  conversion  into  ammonia. 

It  is  the  result  equally  of  chemical  and  agricultural  expe- 
rience, that  salts  are  decomposed  with  more  or  less  ease, 


156  MANURE. 

that  their  stability  is  greater  or  less.  Nitrates  are  less  stable 
compounds  than  sulphates,  sulphates  less  stable  than  chlo- 
rides, or  muriates,  and  these  last  less  stable  than  carbonate*. 
Hence,  the  ease  with  which  the  nitrogen  of  a  salt  is  yielded, 
affects  the  result.  Time,  then,  is  required  to  produce  from 
equal  amounts  of  nitrogen,  equal  effects  from  different  salts 
containing  that  element. 

This  is  true,  also,  of  organic,  nitrogenous  manures.  The 
nitrogen  is  effective  in  proportion  to  the  rapidity  of  decay. 
Hence,  the  nitrogen  in  horns,  hair,  feathers,  hoofs,  leather- 
shavings,  woollen  rags  and  flocks,  produces  not  the  same 
effects  in  the  same  time,  with  an  equal  amount  of  nitrogen 
in  flesh  and  blood.  Nitrogen  in  soil  may  be  useless  from 
its  state  of  combination. 

It  has  been  proved  by  Krocker  that  rocks,  and  even  bar- 
ren soils,  at  the  usual  depth  of  tillage,  contain  an  amount  of 
ammonia  exceeding  per  acre  that  of  any  fair  crop,  raised  by 
the  aid  of  best  farm-yard  manure,  on  an  acre  of  the  best  soil. 
It  is  not  enough  that  tons  and  tons  of  ammonia  are  already 
existent  in  soil,  if  that  ammonia  can  be  extracted  only  by 
chemical  processes,  and  human  manipulation.  No  matter 
how  much  of  this  element  may  be  in  rain,  how  much  may 
exist  in  the  soil,  aided  by  the  inorganic  salts,  fair  average 
crops  may  be  raised  by  these  natural  sources  of  ammonia. 
To  obtain  truly  profitable  crops,  an  excess  beyond  the  na- 
tural supply  is  absolutely  essential.  To  keep  up  this  excess, 
and  to  obtain  the  largest  returns  for  the  seed  sown,  nitrogen 
in  the  shape  of  salts,  or  of  readily  decomposing  organic  mat- 
ter, must  be  supplied  with  inorganic  salts.  The  nitrogenous 
principle  gives  at  once  an  energy  to  vegetation,  enabling  it 
to  unfold  early  and  largely  those  organs,  the  roots  and  leaves, 
by  which  the  earth  and  air  contribute  their  portion  to  the 
growth  of  plants. 


MANUKE.  157 

Nitrogen  gives  salts  power  to  do  nore  work  in  the  same 
time.  It  is  a  labor-saving  machine,  enabling  the  farmer  from 
the  same  ground,  and  with  the  same  time  and  labor,  to  reap 
larger  rewards.  Natural  vegetation  is  a  low-pressure  engine, 
but  it  will  bear  any  amount  of  pressure,  so  beautifully  built 
is  it  in  all  its  parts.  Inorganic  salts  are  the  water,  geine  the 
fire  which  raises  the  steam  to  drive  this  machine,  filling  the 
thousand  cylinders  which  are  distributed  throughout  plants. 
Nitrogen  is  the  regulator  of  this  engine.  Nature  has  every- 
where put  her  machine  into  the  hands  of  man.  She  keeps  it 
in  working  order,  by  her  gentle  steam.  She  takes  man  as 
her  apprentice,  and  her  generous  hand  supplied  the  daily 
bread  while  man  was  learning  the  construction  of  the  valves, 
the  working  of  pistons,  the  real  power  of  the  engine,  the 
source  of  the  stearn.  These,  even  though  dimly  seen,  nature 
demands  should  be  worked  up  to  full  pressure,  when  the 
apprentice  sets  up  for  himself,  and  is  determined  that  the 
sweat  of  his  brow,  while  it  feeds  his  body,  shall  also  purify, 
enlarge  and  strengthen  his  intellect. 

In  making  agricultural  trials  with  pure  ammoniacal  salts 
(166),  in  which  the  nitrogen  exists  as  ammonia,  or  as  an 
acid  united  with  ammonia,  and  with  nitrates,  in  which  the 
nitrogen  exists  as  an  acid,  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the 
base  with  which  this  nitrogen  acid  is  combined,  acts  an  im- 
portant part.  The  influence  of  the  base  is  to  be  deducted 
from  that  rightly  due  to  the  nitrogen,  as  determined  by 
experiments.  What  then  is  the  influence  of  pure  salts  of 
ammonia1?  It  has  been  proved,  again  and  again,  especially 
by  Jacqucmart,  in  France,  and  by  Kuhlmann,  in  Flanders, 
that  pure  salts  of  ammonia  act  like  ordinary  nitrogenous 
manures.  Their  energy  of  action,  their  relative  value,  is 
almost  in  direct  ratio  to  their  nitrogen. 

This  is  a  doctrine,  which,  limited  by  the  circumstances 


158  MANURE. 

referred  to  above,  is  substantiated  by  experiment.  Sal- 
ammoniac,  or  muriate  of  ammonia,  and  sulphate  of  ammonia, 
were  used  by  Kuhlmann  as  a  top-dressing  on  mowing  ground. 
The  field  was  apparently  in  the  same  condition  in  every  part, 
and  equally  exposed.  It  was  laid  out  in  plots  of  four  square 
poles,  separated  by  trenches.  Alternate  patches  were  reserved 
unmanured,  and  as  the  whole  was  in  grass,  all  accidents  of 
culture  were  avoided.  The  season  was  rainy  and  quite  wet. 
The  salts  were  applied  at  the  rate  of  240  Ibs.  per  acre,  and 
the  grass  cut  and  cured  on  each  plot  at  the  same  time.  The 
yield  of  hay,  over  unmanured  plots,  for  every  100  Ibs.  of 
sal-ammoniac  used,  was  at  the  rate  of  580  Ibs.  per  acre  ; 
and  for  every  100  Ibs.  sulphate  ammonia,  419.6  Ibs.  or  as  1 
to  0.723. 

This  is  nearly  in  direct  ratio  to  the  nitrogen,  which,  per 
100  parts,  in  the  muriate  of  ammonia,  is  26.439 ;  in  the 
sulphate  of  ammonia  is  21.375;  or  the  nitrogen  is  as  1  to 
0.808,  while  the  crop  is  as  1  :  0.723. 

In  the  same  field,  and  at  the  same  time,  was  used  bone- 
liquor,  that  which  had  been  boiled  on  bones,  to  extract  their 
fat.  The  last  being  removed,  the  liquor  is  a  weak  solution 
of  glue  or  gelatin,  containing,  when  dried,  16.980  parts  of 
nitrogen  in  100.  It  was  used  at  the  rate  of  2000  gallons  per 
acre.  What,  then,  is  the  value  of  this  bone-liquor,  estimated 
on  the  per  centage  of  nitrogen  ?  It  is  as  26.439  :  16.980. 
Now-  26.439  nitrogen  in  sal-amrnoniac,  gave  580  Ibs.  hay 
excels  over  unmanured.  Hence,  16.980  should  give  372.8  ; 
and  this  was  the  actual  amount  for  every  100  Ibs.  of  dry 
matter  in  this  liquor.  Here,  an  organic  manure,  rapidly 
decomposing,  formed  ammonia  by  its  nitrogen,  which  afford- 
ed a  product  equal,  pro  rata,  to  that  of  an  easily  decompos- 
able salt,  in  which  ammonia  was  already  formed. 

Doubtless,  had  the  salts  employed  been  equally  easily 


MANURE.  159 

decomposable,   their    nitrogen    would    have    given    equal 
results. 

To  observe,  then,  the  difference  between  salts  of  ammo- 
nia unequally  decomposable,  let  the  amounts  of  hay  produced 
by  100  parts  of  nitrogen  from  each  salt  be  compared.  Un- 
influenced by  the  considerations  which  have  been  offered, 
these  should  be  alike. 

The  sal-ammoniac  gave,  for  every 
100  parts  of  nitrogen,  24,395  parts  of  hay. 

The  sulphate  gave,  for  every  100 
parts  of  nitrogen,  21,660  parts  of  hay. 

2,735 

Now,  this  difference  is  attributable  to  the  greater  stability 
of  sulphate  of  ammonia.  It  gives  up  its  alkali  slower.  The 
plant  does  not  so  readily  dissociate  the  elements  of  the  salt. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  bone-liquor  is  examined,  it  is 
found  that,  because  it  was  readily  decomposed,  100  parts  of 
its  nitrogen  produced  24,355  parts  of  hay,  coinciding  almost 
exactly  with  the  product  from  sal-ammoniac,  and  confirming 
thus  the  principle  that  nitrogen  measures  the  value  of  a 
manure. 

When  all  circumstances  are  equal,  100  nitrogen  always 
produce  like  effects,  no  matter  what  may  be  its  origin. 
Among  the  most  important  circumstances  which  influence 
manure,  are  drought  and  wet.  The  season  has  its  influence, 
and  years  differing  by  temperature,  moisture,  and  dryness, 
show  different  results  from  the  same  manure. 

But  it  is  not  as  muriate  or  sulphate  that  the  ammonia  of 
manure  is  ordinarily  found. 

Putrefaction  gives  rise  to  carbonate  of  ammonia.  It  has 
been  proved  that  the  degree  of  saturation  has  no  effect  on 
the  result.  It  is  of  no  practical  importance  whether  the 


160  MANURE. 

ammonia  be  partly  or  wholly  saturated  with  carbonic  acid. 
Even  the  excess  of  that  acid  does  not  prevent— it  ought 
rather  to  increase — the  good  effects  of  this  compound. 
Taking,  therefore,  carbonate  of  ammonia,  which  is  more 
readily  decomposed  than  even  the  muriate,  let  its  effects  be 
compared  with  that  of  sulphate,  each  salt  being  used  in  such 
quantity  that  the  amount  of  nitrogen  shall  be  equal. 

Jacquemart,  carefully  conducting  this  comparative  experi- 
ment, in  France,  mixed  the  solution  of  carbonate  of  ammo- 
nia with  charcoal  or  peat,  so  as  to  bring  it  into  a  dry  state, 
like  the  sulphate.  The  salts  were  sowed  with  wheat  in  the 
fall,  on  the  same  field,  and  under  circumstances  apparently 
the  same.  The  field  had  been  cleared  of  bushes,  grubbed 
up,  and,  after  two  crops,  was  limed  and  marled.  Now  this 
liming  and  marling,  though  alike  in  all  parts,  had  a  special 
effect  on  the  sulphate  of  ammonia;  it  imbibed  it,  and  gradu- 
ally evolved  carbonate  of  ammonia.  Hence,  in  the  first 
year,  the  sulphate  yielded  less  than  portions  of  the  same 
field  unmanured. 

But  the  year  following,  the  experiment  was  repeated,  and 
the  salts,  as  before  used,  were  aguin  sown  with  wheat  on  the 
same  places  in  which  each  had  been  before  applied.  The 
sulphate  was  therefore  in  a  state  to  act  with  more  efficiency, 
but  still  the  lime  interfered. 

The  product  was  71  with  the  sulphate  to  70  unmanured. 
The  product,  with  carbonate  and  peat,  compared  with  that 
with  sulphate,  was  as  94  to  71,  or  as  1  to  0.74.  In  Kuhl- 
mann's  trials,  uninfluenced  by  lime,  it  was  as  1  to  0.88.  Let 
it  be  remembered  that  Kuhlmann  used  muriate  of  ammonia, 
a  salt  not  so  easily  decomposed  as  carbonate.  To  show  the 
influence  of  lime  on  sulphate  of  ammonia,  a  solution  of  that 
salt  in  the  same  quantity  as  before  used,  was  absorbed  to 
dry  ness  by  chalk,  and  sowed  with  oats. 


MANURE.  161 

The  product  was  as  79  to  74  over  the  ^niv.anured.  The 
same  ground  being  again  sowed  with  wheat  and  salts  as 
before  prepared,  yielded  the  second  year,  as  90  to  70  over 
the  un manured.  Two  seasons  seem  therefore  necessary  to 
the  full  efficacy  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  on  limed  soils. 

That  nitrogen  measures  the  value  of  manures,  is  proved 
also  by  nitrate  of  soda.  Here  soda,  the  base,  also  acts ;  but 
if  nitrate  of  soda  be  used  in  unequal  doses,  then  the  product 
is  nearly  in  direct  ratio  to  the  nitrogen  employed. 

Now  on  the  same  field  on  which  Kuhlmann  performed  his 
experiments,  which  are  above  related,  he  tried  at  the  same 
time  nitrate  of  soda  in  two  proportions,  at  the  rate  of  240 
and  120  Ibs.  per  acre. 

The  yield  of  hay  over  unmanured  soil  was,  for 
240  Ibs.  nitrate  soda,  1550  Ibs.  per  acre. 
120    "  "  784    "         " 

This  is  in  direct  ratio  of  the  nitrogen  employed.  If  now 
the  effect  of  nitrate. of  soda  is  compared  with  sal-ammoniac 
or  bone-liquor,  it  is  seen  that  the  addition  of  the  soda  base 
has  given  the  nitrogen  great  activity.  The  combination  has 
given  the  plant  power  to  absorb  a  greater  quantity  of  food 
from  earth  and  air,  than  either  the  nitrogen  or  the  base 
singly  could  have  effected. 

The  yield  has  been  for  every  100  parts  of  nitrogen  used, 
40.050  parts  of  hay ;  nearly  double  that  produced  by  a 
simple  ammoniacal  salt,  and  four  times  that  which  an  equal 
amount  of  nitrogen  ordinarily  produces. 

These  facts  prove  the  strength  of  the  principle  adopted  for 
estimating  the  relative  value  of  manures.  No  manure,  no 
salt,  no  combination  of  salts,  gives  full  vigor  to  vegetation, 
while  nitrogen  is  absent.  Nitrogen  not  only  measures,  but 
gives  the  value  to  manures.  It  has  been  asserted,  on  high 
authority,  that  nitrogen  in  animal  manure  is  always  in  a 


162  MANURE. 

definite  proportion  to  the  phosphates;  hence  it  may  meas- 
ure their  quantity.  Nitrogen  makes  manure  hotter  or 
colder.  This  causes  change  among  the  particles  to  begin, 
and  to  be  carried  on  in  the  manure.  Motion  begins  here, 
and  is  communicated  to  seeds  and  plants.  Hence,  crops  are 
in  proportion  to  the  energy  of  these  changes  and  motions. 

207.  This  is  a  practical  view  of  a  practical  subject.     The 
nitrogen  present  in  the  manure  expresses  its  true  value. 
This  position  is  substantiated  by  the  experience  of  practical 
men.     The  experiments  undertaken  by  order  of  the  Saxon 
and  Prussian  authorities,  to  ascertain  whether  the  contents 
of  the  sewers  of  the  cities  of  Dresden  and  Berlin,  could  be 
applied  to  fertilizing  the  barren  lands  in  their  vicinity,  may 
be  offered  to  prove  its  correctness.     These  varied  in  every 
form,  and  continued  for  a  long  period,  prove  that  if  a  soil 
without  manure  yields  a  crop  of  three  for  one  sown,  then 
the  same  land  yields,  dressed 

With  cow-dung,  7  for  one  sown, 

"     horse-dung,  10       "          " 

"     human  manure,    14       "          " 

Now  the  nitrogen  in  these  has  been  shown,  taking  the 
minimum  of  nitrogen  in  the  human,  at  1^-  per  cent,  is  as 
1  :  1.50  :  3,  whilst  the  above  numbers  are  to  each  other,  as 
1  :  1.43  :  2. 

Considering  bow  varied  ia  the  composition  of  night-soil, 
and  how  much  diluted  by  various  mixtures,  this  agreement 
is  as  near  as  ought  to  have  been  expected,  in  experiments 
whose  objects  were  so  totally  different  from  that  of  ascer- 
taining the  quantity  of  nitrogen  in  each  different  manure. 

208.  Many    modes   of  using   night-soil   are   in    use,   all 
depending  on  convenience,  and  modified  by  locality,  and 
other  circumstances.     Perhaps  no  mode  is  preferable  to  that 
long  usnd  in  Flanders.     It  has  the  sanction  of  a  people  whose 


MANURE.  163 

agriculture  is,  and  has  been  for  ages,  pre-eminent.  Flemish 
manure,  or  gadou,  contains  the  whole  efficacy  of  night-soil, 
both  solid  and  liquid ;  and  as  used  in  Flanders  it  may  be 
easily  produced  anywhere.  Gadou  cannot  be  too  highly 
recommended  for  those  who  reside  in  the  vicinity  of  a  dense 
population,  and  who  cannot  procure  dried  peat,  or  charred 
matter  to  mix  with  night-soil.  It  is  even  questionable 
whether  the  products  of  the  market-garden  are  not  earlier 
and  more  luxuriant,  and  the  yield  greater  with  gadou,  than 
with  night-soil  in  any  other  shape. 

An  essential  requisite  for  forming  Flemish  manure,  is  a 
brick  or  stone  cistern,  laid  in  mortar  cement,  and  covered 
with  an  arch  of  the  same.  Two  openings  are  left  in  the 
arch,  one  for  the  introduction  of  the  night-soil,  the  other  for 
an  air-hole,  which  must  be  kept  open.  Night-soil,  as  col- 
lected during  the  season  allotted  to  this  work,  is  thrown  into 
this  reservoir,  and  then,  allowed  to  ferment  several  months. 
Gadou  sells  in  Lisle  for  about  24  cents  per  barrel  of  32 
gallons  ;  of  this,  about  |-  are  expenses  of  manufacture.  It  is 
then  in  a  liquid  state,  slightly  viscid,  with  the  odor  of  very 
weak  hydrosulphuret  of  ammonia.  This  salt  is  rapidly  con- 
verted by  exposure  and  air  into  sulphate  of  ammonia. 
Gadou  may  be  used  before  or  after  planting,  or  as  a  top- 
dressing  to  grass. 

A  hogshead,  mounted  so  as  to  be  easily  moved,  is  kept  in 
the  field,  and  filled  from  the  cart  with  gadou,  and  from  the 
hogshead  it  is  ladled  out  all  around,  by  means  of  a  long- 
handled  scoop,  such  as  is  commonly  used  by  night  scaven- 
gers, and,  by  successive  removes  of  the  hogshead,  the  whole 
ground  is  watered  with  gadou. 

This  manure,  like  all  the  highly  nitrogenous,  is  an  annual, 
acting  more  rapidly  in  proportion  to  its  fluidity. 

In  Flanders,  about  22  gallons,  or  2  cwt.,  are  equal  to 


164  MANURE. 

about  5  cwt.  of  farm-yard  dung.  But  no  comparison  between 
the  two  can  safely  be  made.  The  one  runs  its  course  rapidly, 
the  other  acts  slowly.  The  one  exerts  all  its  influence  in  a 
season,  the  other  reserves  its  fire,  and  acts  for  two  or  more 
seasons. 

When  it  is  determined  what  portion  of  farm-dung  acts  iu 
a  year,  then  may  that  fraction  be  compared  with  gadou.  If 
the  fraction  is  £,  then  50  of  farm-yard  dung  are  equal  to  100 
Flemish  manure.  The  proportion  of  azote  in  the  last  being 
0.22  per  cent.,  the  real  relation  becomes  to  ordinary  yard- 
manure  which  contains  0.4l  per  cent,  as  182  :  100.  Hence, 
it  is  on  certain  crops  only,  that  this  and  similar  rapidly  de- 
composing manure  should  be  applied.  For  lightening, 
breaking  up,  and  loosening  the  soil,  ameliorating  its  .condi- 
tion, farm  dung  is  better  than  gadou  ;  and  even  where  that 
is  fully  applied,  an  occasional  dressing  with  yard-manure  is 
considered  essential. 

Each  substance  used  for  a  manure  cannot  be  considered  in 
detail.  The  composition  only,  will  be  mentioned.  Among 
the  mixed  manures,  poudrette  and  guano  rank  next  to 
gadou.  Poudrette  is  night-soil  partly  dried  in  pans,  and 
mixed  up  with  variable  quantities  of  charred  earth,  peat 
charcoal,  or  ground  peat  and  plaster.  Its  value  will  depend 
on  the  circumstance,  whether  its  ammonia  and  salts  are 
saved,  or  lost,  in  the  manufacture.  If  sulphate  or  muriate 
of  lime  is  added  before  drying,  then  the  volatile  carbonate 
of  ammonia  will  be  changed  into  sulphate  of  ammonia,  and 
sal-ammoniac.  Thus,  not  only  the  most  valuable  portion  of 
night-soil  will  be  retained,  but  the  salts  of  lime  will  be  much 
increased.  The  peat  not  only  retains  a  portion  of  gaseous 
ammonia,  but  its  geine  by  this  act  is  rendered  more  soluble. 
All  night-soil  from  vaults  has  begun  to  evolve  ammonia, 
hence  the  advantage  of  mixing  ground  peat  or  plaster  with 


MANURE. 


165 


night-soil,  before  drying.  But,  however  prepared,  poudrette 
varres  much  in  quality.  Analysis  alone  can  determine  its 
true  value.  Four  samples  of  dried  night-soil,  examined  by 
Professor  Johnston,  afforded  as  follows,  per  100  parts  : 


Water,    ...... 

Organic  matter,  with   a 

little  nitrogen,  .  .  . 
Ammonia,  ..... 
Phosphates  of  lime,  mag- 

nesia, and  iron,  .  . 
Carbonate  of  lime,  .  . 

magnesia, 

Sulph.  of  lime  (gypsum), 
Alkaline  salts, 
Insoluble  silicious  matter, 


1.  2.  3.  4. 

20.04  15.12  13  97  27.46 


9.39    21.52    49.53 
0.53      2.25       ? 


9.14 


5.04      7.53  13.12  4.37 

22.62  19.80  2.56  6.89 

.90         "            "  " 

2.32  " 

1.33  9.27  12.35  7.10 
37.42  24.46  8.44  45.04 


Very  recently,  Soubeiran  has  analyzed  the  poudrette  of 
Montfaucon,  near  Paris.  Taking  into  view  the  state  in  which 
ammonia  exists  in  manure,  Soubeiran  has,  with  great  skill, 
separated  that  which  exists  as  putrescible  animal  matter,  or 
as  an  easily  soluble  ammoniacal  salt,  from  that  which  exists 
as  a  less  soluble  compound  of  ammonia,  magnesia,  and  phos- 
phoric acid,  a  triple  salt,  which  is  slowly  decomposed  in  the 
soil.  Fresh  and  warm  poudrette,  as  sold  at  Montfaucon,  to 
farmers,  in  November,  1847,  contained  in  100  parts,  — 


I 

Water, 

Organic  matter, 
Soluble  alkaline  salts, 
Carbonate  of  lime,.         .         . 
Sulphate  of  lime,     . 
Ammoniaco-magnesian  phosphate, 


28.00 
29.00 
0.43 
3.87 
3.87 
6.55 


166  MANURE. 

Bone  phosphate  of  lime, .        .     ,  *  <  •     .        .      3.46 
Earthy  matters,      .         .         .       •*:.      .         .     24.82 

100.00 

209.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  value  of  poudrettc 
depends  on  the  skill  and  honesty  of  the  manufacturer.  But 
allowing  these  to  be  what  they  should  be,  no  consumer  of 
poudrette  will  think  himself  wronged,  if  he  discovers  ground 
peat  in  the  article ;  and  allowing  this,  and  the  plaster,  or 
other  salts  added,  and  water  to  compose  one-half  the  weight 
of  this  manure,  the  farmer  buys,  in  every  hundred  pounds 
of  poudrette,  200  pounds  of  the  best  human  excrement,  and 
in  a  form  not  only  portable,  but  perfectly  inoffensive.  The 
value  of  good  poudrette,  depending  on  its  ammonia,  is,  com- 
pared with  cow-dung,  as  4  to  1,  calculated  on  the  average  of 
its  nitrogen,  cow-dung  being  1. 

Paris  is  the  birth-place  of  poudrette,  as  well  as  of  fashion. 
Poudrette  is  one  of  the  French  fashions  founded  on  good 
taste.  Rude  in  its  first  manufacture,  like  a  French  dish,  it 
has  been  improved  by  science,  and  its  manufacture  has 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  most  eminent  chemists,  who 
have  conferred  on  this  Important  interest  the  highest  benefit. 
One  is  astonished  at  the  vastness  of  the  works  devoted  to 
the  preparation  of  poudrette,  at  the  forest  of  Bondy,  and  at 
Montfaucon.  There  arrive  daily  at  this  establishment,  six 
hundred  cubic  yards  of  night-soil.  This  quantity  affords  one 
hundred  cubic  yards  of  poudrette  after  undergoing  the  vari- 
ous processes  in  the  immense  vats  of  reception  and  subsi- 
dence. The  liquids,  and  of  course  a  large  portion  of  the 
salts,  were  formerly  allowed  to  run  into  the  Seine.  But 
even  with  this  waste,  the  simply  air-dried  poudrette  w.-is 
worth  to  the  farmer  and  gardener,  $1.62  per  cwt.,  contain- 
ing,  on  the  average,  1.6  per  cent  of  nitrogen  in  the  ordinary 


MANURE.  167 

poudrette,  2  per  cent,  in  the  middling,  and  2.67  in  the  first 
quality. 

The  immense  loss  sustained  by  agriculture,  by  the  waste- 
ful and  hateful  mode  of  making  poudrette,  as  above  de- 
scribed, demanded  reform.  The  liquid  portion  of  night-soil 
at  Montfaucon,  is  worth  to  agriculture  nearly  three  times  the 
value  of  its  poudrette.  Chemistry  taught  that  urine  could 
be  easily  converted  to  sulphate  of  ammonia,  at  a  rate,  calcu- 
lating its  value  on  its  nitrogen,  cheaper  than  poudrette. 
Practice  has  shown  that  sulphate  of  ammonia  is  effective,  in 
proportion  to  its  nitrogen,  which  is  about  21  per  cent.  It 
can  be  made  at  4^  cents  per  Ib.  Now,  at  $1.62  per  cwt.  for 
poudrette  at  1.6  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  the  relative  money 
value  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  and  poudrette  is  as  1  to  13. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  the  urine  at  Montfaucon  woulc 
annually  produce  4,000,000  Ibs.  of  sulphate  of  ammonia. 
The  nitrogen  in  this  amount  is  equal  to  52,000,000  Ibs.  of 
poudrette,  or  to  2,029,270  Ibs.  yard-manure,  or  about  225 
cords,  containing  0.41  per  cent,  nitrogen  ;  about  i  less  than 
that  of  pure  cow-dung.  Still  it  was  desirable  that  all  the 
liquids  of  night-soil  should  be  saved  for  agriculture,  without 
undergoing  a  process  of  separate  manufacture,  however 
cheap  its  product  might  be.  A  process  was  wanted  which 
could  be  universally  and  easily  applied,  even  by  the  hum- 
blest of  those  who  go  about  in  darkness,  and  by  night 
"gather  samphire,  dreadful  trade;"  a  process  equally  appli- 
cable to  a  single  load,  or  to  the  annual  product  of  a  crowded 
city. 

With  the  hope  that  the  nuisance  of  night-men  may  be 
abated,  when  it  is  seen  that  agriculture  and  health  will  be 
equally  benefited,  by  adopting  better  processes  for  the  con- 
version of  the  contents  of  our"  vaults  into  manure,  a  general 
account  of  the  mode  of  effecting  such  a  desirable  result 


168  MANURE. 

may  be  here  set  before  agricultural  and  sanitary  commit- 
tees. 

It  had  long  been  known  that  sugar-house  black,  the  oone 
charcoal  refuse  from  the  sugar  refinery,  was  a  valuable 
manure,  having  properties  which  could  not  be  attributed 
solely  to  its  bone-dust,  or  phosphate  of  lime.  Something 
was  due  to  the  charcoal,  something  to  the  blood  added  to 
clarify,  and  something  to  the  matter  extracted  by  both  from 
the  crude  sugar.  A  constant  and  gentle  production  of  am- 
monia goes  on  in  sugar-refinery  bone-black,  giving  that  a 
value  superior  to  its  per  centage  of  ammonia.  The  porous 
charcoal  induces  by  condensation  the  formation  of  ammonia 
from  the  air,  and  by  changes  occurring  in  the  extractive 
matter,  and  the  charcoal  itself.  It  was  attempted  to  imitate 
refinery-black,  by  mixing  charred  turf,  or  peat,  or  even 
mould,  with  the  water  of  city  sewers.  This,  under  the  name 
of  "  animalized  black,"  proved  a  powerful  manure,  very  like 
refinery-black,  affording  like  that,  an  enduring  and  constant 
gentle  evolution  of  ammonia.  Carbonized  earth,  charred 
peat,  charcoal,  or  mould,  mixed  with  urine,  and  the  liquid 
portion  of  the  settling  vats  of  poudrette  manufactories, 
formed  also  a  manure  similar  to  sugar-house  black. 

The  greatest  improvement  yet  introduced  into  the  pou- 
drette processes,  depends  on  the  above  principles.  The 
whole  contents  of  Parisian  vaults  are  now  at  once  mixed 
with  charred  matters,  by  which  they  are  completely  deodo- 
rized, and  easily  reduced  to  a  dry  state,  in  which  they  may 
be  pulverized,  barelled,  transported,  without  offensive  exha- 
lations. The  substance  selected  for  charring  should  contain, 
like  peat,  or  turf,  or  swamp  muck,  or  pond  mud,  abundance 
of  vegetable  remains.  These  several  substances  are  prefer- 
able. Vegetable  mould  or  loam  charred  will  answer,  and, 
when  previously  to  being  charred,  these  are  mixed  with  saw- 


MANURE.  169 

dust,  small  chips,  shavings,  or  tanner's  spent  bark,  they 
become  quite  equal  to  peat  charcoal. 

Whatever  substance  is  chosen,  after  it  has  been  charred,  it 
should  easily  fall  to  powder.  If  a  too  clayey  loam  is  used, 
it  forms  lumps  in  the  charring  process. 

The  process  of  forming  poudrette  thus  becomes  inoffensive 
and  simple,  and  the  materials  being  collected,  they  are  to  be 
mixed,  as  follows,  in  a  pit  sunk  for  the  purpose.  To  every 
load  of  night-soil,  add  an  equal  bulk  of  the  charred  mate- 
rial, mixing  evenly  the  two,  by  rakes  and  stirrers,  like  a 
mason's  mortar  mixing  tool. 

The  liquids  are  absorbed,  it  becomes  a  stiff  mass,  which  is 
to  be  heaped  up,  and  the  watery  portion  allowed  to  drain 
out.  If  the  centre  of  the  pit  is  raised,  of  course  the  fluid 
collects  round  the  edges,  and  this  is  to  be  again  mixed  with 
the  charred  matter,  till  the  moisture  is  absorbed.  The 
whole  mass  is  now  to  be  air-dried  under  sheds. 

When  pretty  dry,  add  again  its  volume  of  night-soil,  and 
so  repeat  as  long  as  the  night-soil  is  deodorized,  or  till  the 
charcoal  matter  is  only  about  one-fourth  the  whole  mixture. 

The  whole  may  be  finished  in  five  or  six  weeks.  It  is  a 
dry  powder,  which  may  be  carried  about  in  a  snuff-box,  with 
as  little  offence  as  the  pulverized  weed  ;  and,  when  recently 
prepared,  has  been  actually  handed  round  on  a  china  plate, 
at  an  evening  party  of  sensitive,  and  very  sensible  ladies  and 
gentlemen,  without  their  suspecting  the  origin  of  the  new 
article  of  commerce  submitted  to  their  inspection  and  criti- 
cism. 

From  the  variety  of  materials  which  may  be  used,  no  one 
whose  enterprise  and  interest  impel  him  to  collect  night-soil, 
can  say  that  he  has  not,  or  may  not  have  the  material  for 
charring.  He  may  object  to  the  process  as  too  expensive 
for  an  individual  like  himself  to  undertake  such  a  matter. 
8 


170  MANURE 

Happily  in  this  part  of  our  country,  peat  bogs,  hassocks, 
turf,  sa*"-dust,  spent  and  decayed  bark,  underbrush  of  pines, 
and  the  rubbish  left  after  gleaning  the  fagots  where  wood 
land  has  been  cleared,  are  abundant.  Make  these  into  small 
piles  with  loam,  giving  enough  combustible  matter  to  allow 
the  whole,  when  covered  with  sods  and  fired,  to  burn  slowly 
like  a  charcoal  pit,  a  slow,  smothered  fire,  burning  without 
consuming,  till  the  whole  soil  with  which  the  peat  or  earth, 
&c.,  were  mixed,  has  been  baked  quite  up  to  a  low,  red  heat, 
just  visible  in  the  night. 

This  mass  of  baked  soil  and  charcoal  will  answer  very 
well  for  the  speedy  conversion  of  the  few  loads  of  night-soil, 
which  small  farmers  may  collect  into  a  dry,  useable  manure, 
on  the  plan  which  has  been  laid  down. 

To  those  who  undertake  the  removal  of  larger  quantities, 
a  general  account  of  the  furnace  used  for  charring  soil,  the 
mode  of  conducting  the  whole  process,  from  the  collection  of 
the  raw  material,  from  its  legion  of  city  and  town  deposito- 
ries, to  its  final  state  of  a  dry,  inodorous  manure,  full  of 
agricultural  vigor,  may  be  an  inducement  to  undertake  its 
preparation. 

First.  Be  it  understood,  that  a  few  pounds  of  copperas, 
dissolved  in  a  pail  of  water,  say  half  a  pound  to  a  gallon, 
will,  when  thrown  into  an  ordinary  vault,  while  its  contents 
are  being  removed,  completely  deodorize  that,  no  noxious 
gases  escape,  polluting  the  air,  and  making  night  more  terri- 
ble than  day  to  the  dweller  in  crowded  cities. 

This  would  be  an  incidental  benefit  to  all,  but  to  him  who, 
by  contract,  abates  the  nuisance  of  an  overflowing  vault,  it  is 
money  in  his  pocket.  The  addition  of  copperas- water  actu- 
ally adds  a  direct  value  to  the  night-soil.  The  ammonia  so 
volatile,  the  sulphuretted  compounds  so  horrible,  are  seized 
by  the  copperas  water,  they  are  retained  long  enough  to  bo 


MANURE.  171 

transported  to  the  spot  where  the  further  conversion  of  tne 
night-soil  is  to  take  place.  Both  the  ammonia  and  sulphur- 
etted hydrogen  are  too  valuable  to  be  lost.  No  grain  ever 
grew  which  did  not  contain  sulphur  compounds. 

Secondly.  The  night-soil  being  deodorized,  as  above,  it  is 
to  be  removed  or  transported,  by  day  or  by  night,  as  may 
be  most  convenient,  to  the  pit  prepared  for  its  reception, 
and  then  mixed  in  the  mode  which  has  been  above  set  forth, 
with  the  charred  material. 

Thirdly.  The  furnace  for  charring  is  to  be  constructed  of 
several  hoppers,  or  very  shallow  pans,  with  inclined  sides, 
set  one  above  the  other,  and  surrounded  with  brick  work,  so 
that  the  fire  may  play  all  around  the  hoppers.-  The  hoppers 
must  be  so  constructed  as  to  swivel,  so  that  the  contents  of 
each  may  be  easily  dropped  into  the  pan  immediately  below. 

The  bottom  of  each  pan  is  made  of  thick  cast-iron,  the 
lowest  pan  has  a  bottom  of  fire-brick,  and  is  stationary  over 
the  grate ;  a  door  leads  to  it,  and  its  end  is  movable,  so  as 
to  allow  the  charred  material  to  be  withdrawn. 

The  height  of  the  furnace  will  be  regulated  by  the  num- 
ber of  tiers  of  pans.  It  is  a  large  chimney  stack,  with  a  fire 
at  its  bottom,  the  flame,  smoke,  (fee.,  passing  among  the 
hoppers. 

The  pans  are  charged  with  the  materials  intended  to  be 
baked,  and  the  fire  is  kept  up  constantly. 

The  earth  or  peat  on  the  lowest  hopper,  when  of  a  brown- 
ish red  color,  and  somewhat  hot,  is  to  be  withdrawn  into 
sheet-iron  cylinders,  furnished  with  a  tight  cover,  and  cooled 
while  shut  up.  The  materials  in  the  several  hoppers  are  to 
be  successively  dropped  into  those  below  them,  and  the  upper 
one  recharged  with  fresh  matter.  The  charge  is  repeated 
about  once  in  an  hour,  the  earth,  &c.,  having  been  previously 
screened  and  made  fine. 


172  MANURE. 

The  materials  should  be  moist  when  put  into  the  furnace. 
This  prevents  combustion  on  the  lower  plate,  and  the  steam 
from  the  moisture  pervading  the  whole  furnace,  excludes  the 
air,  and  so  carbonization  takes  place  without  combustion. 
A  furnace  18  feet  high,  will  char  15  to  18  cubic  yards  in 
twenty-four  hours,  and  in  France  it  has  been  found  that  the 
cost,  per  cubic  yard,  is  96  cents — say,  $1. 

The  whole  cost  of  an  establishment,  capable  of  converting 
into  poudrette,  the  night-soil  of  a  city  of  20,000  inhabitants, 
is  about  $4000  to  $5000.  Theactual  cost  of  the  manufacture, 
including  all  expenses,  is  about  20  cents  per  year  for  each 
inhabitant. 

The  product  is  about  136  cords,  or  17,000  Dushels  annu- 
ally. The  poudrette  contains  about  3  per  cent,  of  nitrogen, 
and  under  the  name  of  "  animalized  black,"  it  sells  for  about 
34  cents  per  bushel.  Thi«  leaves  a  profit  of  between  $1700 
and  $1800  per  annum. 

Experience  determines  the  value  of  manure.  Its  decisions 
are  without  appeal.  It  has  proved  that  from  22  to  28  bushels 
per  acre  of  animal  black,  are  equal  to  four  tons  of  yard- 
manure. 

The  preparation  of  poudrette  so  extensively  pursued  in 
Franco,  Continental  Europe,  and  England,  has  been  also 
attempted  in  this  country  with  varied  success.  Many  estab- 
lishments, unfortunately,  have  been  abandoned,  but  the 
"  Lodi  Manufacturing  Company,"  situated  about  three  miles 
from  the  city  of  New  York,  perseveres  and  produces  A  good 
article,  which  is  entitled  to  the  farmer's  confidence.  It  is 
sold  at  the  works  at  about  $1.50  per  barrel,  of  four  bushels, 
or  37 5  cents  per  bushel. 

210.  There  is  yet  another  form  of  poudrette,  which,  though 
much  used  in  France,  has  not  been  introduced  here.  It 
contains  more  than  |  animal  matter,  and  it  is  formed  with- 


MANURE.  173 

out  any  offensive  evolution  of  gas,  by  boiling  the  offal  of 
the  slaughter-house,  and  other  refuse  animal  substance,  by 
steam,  into  a  thick  soup,  and  then  mixing  the  whole  into  a 
stiff  paste,  with  sifted  coal  ashes,  and  drying.  If  putrefaction 
should  have  begun,  the  addition  of  a'shes  sweetens  the  whole, 
and  the  prepared  "  animalized  coal,"  as  it  is  termed,  or  pou- 
drette,  is  as  sweet  to  the  nose,  as  garden  mould.  It  is  trans- 
ported in  barrels  from  Paris  to  the  interior 

This  manure  is  prepared  at  "  horse  boiling"  establishments 
in  France.  The  carcasses  of  horses  are  cut  in  quarters,  and 
steamed,  to  separate  the  fat.  Unfortunately  the  flesh  loses 
some  of  its  salts  by  this  treatment.  The  composition  of  the 
commercially  cooked  flesh  was  found  by  Soubeiran  to  be 

Water, 10.00 

Animal  matter, 84.78 

Bone  phosphate  of  lime,  ....  2.40 
Earthy  matter, 2.82 

100.00 

In  this  state* it  is  said  to  be  a  cold  manure,  very  poor  n 
alkaline  salts.  It  wants  ammonia. 

Blood  is  also  converted  into  manure  by  the  "horse  boil- 
ers." It  is  coagulated  by  steam,  and  then  dried  in  the  air. 
Thus  treated,  it  contains 

Water, 17.00 

Animal  matter,  .....  78.00 
Bone  phosphate,  .....  0.33 
Salts  and  earthy  matter,  ....  4.67 


100.00 

211.  Guano  is  the  excrement  of  sea-birds.  It  is  found  on 
our  northern  rocks  and  islands,  but  its  great  deposit  is  on 
the  islands  of  the  Southern  Ocean,  between  13°  and  21°  south 


174 


MANURE. 


latitude.  It  there  forms  immense  beds,  from  60  to  80  feet 
thick.  What  a  length  of  time  must  have  elapsed,  or  how- 
incredible  the  number  of  birds,  to  have  produced  that  pile 
of  guano,  whose  base,  washed  by  the  sea,  was  observed  by 
our  countryman,  Mr.  Blake,  to  stretch  a  mile  in  length,  and  to 
tower  800  to  000  feet  high !  The  composition  of  ancient  guano, 
countenances  the  idea  of  its  being  the  excrements  of  birds. 
212.  The  following  table  presents  the  constituents  of 
guano,  as  determined  by  several  chemists. 


KlJPROTH. 

'Fol'KCXUT 

and 
VArQrituw. 

VUELKEL. 

BARTH&. 

g 
D 

Anonymous 

1 

10. 

12.75 
10. 

0.5 

32. 
28.75 

9. 

10.6 
7. 
6. 
14.3 
2.6 

3.3 

5.5 
4.2 
4.7 
32.3 

9. 

10.6 
7. 
6. 
14.3 
2.6 

3.8 
66 
4.2 
4.7 
32.3 

3.24 

13.35 
16.36 

6.45 

• 
9.94 

4.19 
5.29 
0.10 
1.19 
4.22 
6.50 
5.90 
28.31 

* 

is.t 

26. 

U 

r.l  % 

16. 
15. 

30.5 

3. 
365 

I'liosphate  of  Ammonia,  

"            "  Ammonia  and  Magnesia, 
"           "  Soda,  

Muriate  of  Soda,  

Sulphate  of  Soda,  

"         "   Potash  

•  Included  with  water  and  organic  matter. 
t  Oxalate  mum.  included. 
|  Krom  crop  of  the  bird*. 
<}  Include!  urntr  of  arnm.  nnd  11.  water. 

MANURE.  175 

The  samples  examined  by  Ure  were  from  the  purest 
guano,  furnished  by  the  governments  of  Peruvia  and  Bolivia. 

Of  the  32.3  parts  of  organic  matter,  dec.,  examined  by 
Voelkel,  about  12  parts  are  soluble  in  water. 

An  analysis  of  one  sample  indicates  little  of  the  general 
character  of  the  deposit.  Its  value  depends  chiefly  on  its 
volatile  constituents.  Two  samples  from  the  same  parcel, 
yielded  Professor  Johnston : 

No.  1. 

Water,  salts  of  ammonia,  and  organic  matter,  .         .  23.5 

Sulphate  of  soda,     .         .         .         .         .         .         .  1.8 

Common  salt  and  phosphate  of  soda,         .         .         .  30.3 
Phosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia,  and  carbonate  of 

lime, 44.4 


100.0 

No.  2. 

Water  and  volatile  matter, 51.5 

Ammonia,        ........  7. 

Uric  acid,          ........  .8 

Common  salt  and  sulphate  and  phosphate  of  soda,     .  11.4 

Phosphate  of  lime, 29.3 


100.0 

The  average  of  several  hundred  analyses  of  guano  from 
South  America  and  Africa,  afforded  Professor  Johnston,  per 
1 00  parts : 

Water,  from 12.9  to  29.0 

Organic  matter  and  salts  of  ammonia,     .     28.9  to  35.9 
Phosphates, 26.8  to  38.6 

Ammonia  is  the  most  valuable  ingredient ;  next,  a  peculiar 


170  MANURE. 

acid,  called  uric  acid,  which  gradually  affords  ammonia,  after 
these  the  bone  earth  of  guano,  gives  it  a  permanent  effect. 
The  volatile  matter  acts  in  the  earlier  stage  of  vegetation. 
It  is  continually  escaping.  Hence,  fresh  fallen  guano  is 
always  best.  It  is  probably  like  the  recent  droppings  of  the 
present  race  of  fish-eating  birds.  These  consist  almost 
wholly  of  uric  acid.  The  excrement  of  the  sea  eagle  gave 
in  the 

Solid  Evacuation*.  Liquid  Evacuations. 


Ammonia,      ....     9.20 

Uric  acid, 84.65 

Phosphate  of  lime,  .     .     6.13 


Uric  acid,  ....     59. 
Other  salts,   .     .     .     41. 


100.00  100. 

Compared  with  these,  guano  contains  J  to  |  of  its  original 
organic  elements.  No  manure  yields  more  substances  for 
the  wants  of  plants,  in  all  stages  of  their  growth,  than  guano. 

Guano  is  an  article  of  commerce.  There  are  three  varie- 
ties known  in  trade.  The  white,  the  dark  gray,  the  red 
brown,  which  is  the  most  common.  The  white  is  the  most 
recent,  the  red  brown  the  most  ancient,  and  decomposed, 
the  gray  intermediate.  The  actual  money  value  of  guano  to 
the  fanner,  in  England,  where  it  is  now  extensively  used, 
does  not  exceed  $5  per  cwt.  The  price  lias  fallen  at  the 
present  time  to  about  $2.50  per  cwt.  Beyond  this,  practical 
men,  who  have  used  it,  say  that  the  farmer  cannot  afford  to 
employ  it.  Mr.  Blake  thinks  it  may  be  affc  rded  for  1£  cent, 
per  pound,  delivered  in  the  United  States.  It  is  much  used 
in  Peru,  where  a  spoonful  is  applied  to  each  hill,  as  soon  as 
the  corn  shows  itself.  The  effects  are  what  the  most  san- 
guine could  expect,  from  this  natural,  concentrated  poudrette, 
consisting  both  of  salts  and  geine.  Allowing,  as  has  been 
asserted,  that  the  land  itself  in  Peru,  contains  not  a  particle 


MANURE.  177 

of  organic  matter,  guano  can  be  no  proof  that  plants  require 
not  geine,  containing  as  it  does,  by  analysis,  Ifi  per  cent,  of 
soluble  organic  matter. 

But  this  soluble  matter  will  avail  nothing  without  moist- 
ure ;  hence,  in  Peru,  from  the  days  of  the  Incas,  till  now,  it 
is  the  practice,  according  to  Dr.  Von  Tschudi,  (  Travels  in 
Peru,}  a  few  weeks  after  the  seeds  begin  to  shoot,  to  dig  a 
little  hollow  round  each  plant,  which  is  filled  up  with  guano, 
and  covered  with  earth.  After  12  or  15  hours,  the  whole 
field  is  laid  under  water  for  some  hours.  In  a  few  days  the 
growth  of  the  plant  is  doubled. 

Guano  is  applied  in  best  proportion  in  England  and  in 
this  country,  at  the  rate  of  about  3  to  4  cwt.  per  acre.  It  is 
still  better  applied  mixed  with  one-half  yard-manure.  It 
should  be  applied  annually  in  small  doses  ;  3  to  4  cwt.  are 
considered  equal  to  20  or  25  tons  of  manure. 

213.  The  dung  of  all  domestic  fowls,  and  of  birds  in  gen- 
ral,  contains  salts  similar  to  those  in  guano  ;  and  while  this 
subject  is  under  consideration,  the  fact  may  be  mentioned, 
that  it  has  experimentally  been  proved,  that  the  dung  of 
pigeons  is  ^ths  stronger  than  horse  manure.     And  for  rtoved 
mulberries,  vines,  peaches,  and  other  plants,  the  droppings 
of  the  barn-yard  fowls,  1  part  to  from  4  to  10  of  water  have 
been  found  to  produce  excellent  results;  the  trees  having,  at 
the  end  of  two  years,  the  most  healthy  and  luxuriant  ap- 
pearance imaginable.      The  poultry   yard  is,   to  a  careful 
farmer,  a  rich  source  of  vegetable  food.      How  much  a 
single  hen  can  contribute  to  increase  the  crops,  may  be  seen 
from  the  following  account,  from  Vauquelin. 

214.  In  ten  days  a  hen  ate  7474  grains  of  oats,  which  con- 
tained of 

Phosphate  of  lime,        ....     91.8348  grains. 

Silica, 141.8016      « 

8* 


178  MAXURE. 

During  this  time  four  eggs  were  laid,  whose 

shells  weighed, 308.814    grains. 

And  contained  phosphate  of  lime,      .         .     17.5975  " 

Carbonate  of  lime,       ....  276.7095  " 

Gluten, 9.8725  " 

The  excrements  during  the  same  time,  gave 

of  ashes, 348.521  " 

Composed  of  carbonate  of  lime,     .         .     39.3511  " 

Phosphate  of  lime,        ....  184.5348  " 

Silica, 124.0351  " 

Thus  voiding  in  eggs  and  excrements, 

Carbonate  of  lime,        .         .         .         .315.0606  " 

Phosphate  of  lime,       ....  202.1323  " 

Now  this  is  17.2265  grains  of  silica  less;  and  in  round 
numbers,  110  grains  of  phosphate,  and  315  grains  of  carbon- 
ate of  lime  more  than  the  food  eaten  contained.  Probably 
in  all  such  experiments,  where  confined  to  food  different  from 
usual,  and  deprived  of  their  customary  habits,  all  animals 
draw  upon,  and,  in  such  cases,  may  be  said  to  eat  themselves. 
The  daily  amount  of  bone-dust,  however,  which  one  hen  thus 
produces  in  her  various  droppings,  is  about  18}  grains,  and 
of  carbonate  of  lime,  3.9  or  an  annual  amount  in  round 
numbers,  of  these  two  salts,  of  1  pound  and  3  ounces.  Esti- 
mating the  salts  only,  it  is  found  that  the  agricultural  value 
of  a  single  hen  per  annum,  equals  the  salts  contained  in  sev- 
eral bushels  of  wheat.  This  places  in  a  strong  light,  the 
very  great  effects  produced  by  a  spoonful  of  guano,  to  a  hill 
of  corn.  In  Belgium,  the  annual  value  of  the  dung  of  400 
or  500  head  of  pigeons,  much  used  in  manuring  flax,  is  $25 
to  $30.  Under  the  name  of  columbine,  pigeons'  dung  is 
much  used  in  the  north  of  France,  and  it  is  stated  by  Dumas, 
that  the  annual  droppings  of  six  to  seven  hundred  pigeons 


MANURE.  179 

are  sold  for  100  fruncs,  or  about  $19.  Columbine  is  applied 
at  the  rate  of  about  900  Ibs.  per  acre,  ordinarily.  In 
France  the  expense  of  this  manure,  per  acre,  is  from  $9.60  to 
815.56. 

The  composition  is  as  follows,  per  100  parts : 

^nlnTilp   miftpr  in     1  Recent.  Six  months  old.    After  fermentation. 

DAVY.  SPRENGEL.  DAVY. 

Pigeons'  dung,    f  23  16  8 

The  salts  and  other  matters  are  similar  to  those  in  guano. 
Pigeons'  dung  has  been  imported  from  Egypt  into  England. 
Its  composition  per  100  parts  was  found  by  Johnston  to  be  : 

Water, 6.65 

Organic  matter, 59.68 

Ammonia,      ......     1.50 

Alkaline  salts, 0.42 

Phosphate  of  lime  and  magnesia,  .  .  7.96 
Carbonate  of  lime, .....  2.37 
Silicious  matter,  chiefly  sand, .  .  .  21.42 


100.00 

All  fowl  droppings  should  be  kept  dry  to  avoid  fermenta- 
tion. It  is  best  to  compost  this  manure  with  peat,  or  char- 
red earth,  as  noticed  under  the  head  of  poudrette  making. 

215.  And  here,  having  adverted  to  eggs,  attention  may  be 
called  to  a  sadly  overlooked  fact.  All  around  is  heard  the 
requiem  of  departed  wheat-fields.  The  burden  of  the  chant 
is,  carbonate  of  lime  !  carbonate  of  lime  !  The  wail  is,  it  is 
gone  !  gone  !  The  want  of  this  is  the  grand  characteristic  of 
our  soil.  The  sole  cause,  in  the  estimation  of  some,  of  all 
our  barrenness,  and  fruitless  attempts,  as  they  say,  and 
would  have  us  believe,  at  raising  wheat.  An  egg-shell  shall 
put  such  reasoning  or  dreaming  to  flight.  A  common  sized 


180  MANURE. 

hen's  egg  weighs  about  1000  grains,  of  which  the  shoil  is 
about  106  grains.  Two  per  cent,  of  the  shell  is  albumen,  or 
animal  matter  ;  1  per  cent,  phosphate  of  lime  and  magnesia, 
and  the  balance  or  97  per  cent,  carbonate  of  lime.  At  an 
egg  a  day,  this  u  equal  to  l£  ounce  of  dry  chalk  per  week. 
Whence  comes  this?  From  soil,  from  brick-dust,  from 
grain,  meal,  &c.  But  it  exists  not  in  soil  as  carbonate  of 
lime.  Animals,  like  plants,  decompose  the  silicate  of  lime 
of  soil,  and  recombine  the  base  with  carbonic  acid,  to  form 
egg-shells.  Considering  the  countless  thousands  of  eggs 
which  are  produced  by  the  birds  of  every  feather  in  New 
England,  how  big  a  bit  of  chalk  would  their  shells  produce  ! 
So  of  fresh  water  clams ;  their  shells,  common  throughout 
New  England,  are  carbonate  of  lime.  These  facts  speak 
volumes.  Whenever  birds  cease  to  lay  eggs,  or  clams  to 
form  shells,  then,  and  not  till  then,  may  it  be  said  that  New 
England  soil  is  barren,  because  it  contains  no  lime. 

216.  Flesh,  fish,  fowl,  all  animal  solids,  muscle,  gristle, 
skin,  sinews,  &c.,  all  afford  geine,  by  putrefaction,  and  evolve 
vast  volumes  of  ammonia.  Salts  are  more  or  less  present 
in  all  animal  substances.  There  are  uniformly  found,  in  the 
soft  or  fluid  portions,  some  of  the  following  salts : 

MINERAL   SALTS. 

Sulphate  and  phosphate  of  lime. 
Phosphates  of  soda,  magnesia  and  ammonia. 
Sulphate  and  muriate  of  potash  and  soda. 
Carbonates  of  potash,  soda,  lime,  and  magnesia. 

VEGETABLE   SALTS. 

Benzoate  of  potash,  soda,  lime. 
Acetate,          "  "        M 

Oxalate,          "  «        • 


MANURE.  181 

ANIMAL   SALTS. 

Urate  of  ammonia. 

Lactate  of  ammonia. 

Oxides  of  iron,  manganese,  and  silica. 

In  a  word,  are  found,  in  animals,  the  inorganic  parts  of 
soils,  the  elements  of  silicates,  united  with  the  inorganic 
acids  which  existed  in  the  soil,  added  to  the  organic,  pro- 
duced by  the  animal  itself.  These  salts  are  common  to  ani- 
mals and  plants,  but  except  in  bones,  they  form  only  a  small 
part  of  the  living  body. 

217.  In  plants  there  are  certain  principles,  as  albumen  and 
gluten,  so  like  animal  products,  that  they  have  received  the 
name  of  vegeto-animal.  But  very  late  discoveries  have 
proved  that  they  are  identical  with  the  fibrine  and  albumen 
of  animals.  That  these  animal  and  vegetable  products  are 
modifications  of  a  principle  called  proteine,  has  been  alluded 
to  (page  118).  The  late  analyses  of  these  various  products, 
shed  a  clear  light  over  the  multiform  substances,  from  the 
animal  kingdom,  used  for  manure.  They  show  how  like 
products  arise  from  the  decomposition  of  plants,  and  thus 
assimilate  animal  and  vegetables  in  the  process  of  forming 
composts. 

Fibrine,  or  the  basis  of  flesh,  or  muscular  fibre,  albumen, 
and  caseine,  or  the  curd  of  milk  and  basis  of  cheese,  are 
composed  as  follows,  by  Mulder's  analysis  : — 

Fibrine.  Albumen.  Caeeine. 

Of  eggs.  Of  serum. 

Carbon,  54.56         54.48          5484  54.90 

Nitrogen,  15.72         15.70          15.83  15.80 

Hydrogen,  0.90  7.01  7.09  7.15 


182 


MANURK. 


Oxygen,        ) 
Phosphorus,  L     22.83 
Sulphur,       ) 


100.00      100.00 


100.00 


23.00 


100.00 


The  corresponding  products  of  vegetables  are,  1st,  gluten, 
and  2d,  its  peculiar  principle,  detected  by  Liebig,  called  veg- 
etable fibrine;  3d,  vegetable  albumen;  4th,  legumine,  or 
vegetable  caseine.  The  two  last  are  identical  in  composition 
and  properties,  with  the  albumen  and  caseine  of  animals. 
Indeed,  it  has  been  suggested,  that  animals  never  create 
either  of  the  above,  but  draw  them  ready  formed  from 
plants.  The  composition  of  the  vegetable  principles  author- 
izes such  a  conclusion.  By  the  analyses  of  Drs.  Schercr 
and  Jones,  in  the  laboratory  of  Liebig,  these  are  constituted 
as  follows: 

Gluten.       Vegt.  fibrine.      Albumen.         Caaane. 

Artnn  of  Of  17*,  wheat, 

3  IrUu.  and  pUwti. 


Carbon,               55.22 

54.345 

54.80 

54.138 

Nitrogen,            15.98 

15.733 

15.88 

15.672 

Hydrogen,            7.42 

7272 

7.31 

7.150 

Oxygen, 

Sulphur, 

•  21.38 

22.647 

21.95 

23.034 

Phosphorus, 

100.00         100.00      100.00 


100.00 


Caseine  contains  no  phosphorus,  but  both  animal  and  veg- 
etable principles,  comprised  under  the  above  names,  are 
always  combined  with  alkalies,  lime,  magnesia,  iron,  sulphur, 
and  phosphoric  acid.  The  above  are  the  organized  principles 
of  living  bodies,  and  are  distinguished  from  all  others  by 
their  nitrogen.  Substances  not  containing  this  element  are 
said  to  be  organic,  but  not  organized. 


MANURE.  183 

218.  The  above  substances,  which  form  the  great  bulk  of 
animals,  and  no  small  part  of  plants,  deducting  their  inor- 
ganic elements,  compose  proteine,  whose  constituents  are  : 

Carbon, 55.742 

Hydrogen, G.827 

Nitrogen, 16.143     ' 

Oxygen 21.288 


100.00 

This  compound  is  the  basis  of  the  animal  solids,  and  soft 
parts  :  fibrine,  or  flesh,  and  albumen,  are  only  compounds  of 
this,  with  sulphur  and  phosphorus.  All  the  parts  of  the 
animal  frame  are  modifications  only  of  proteine. 

The  peculiar  principle  of  glue,  or  size,  or  jelly,  called  gela- 
tine, never  exists  in  the  healthy  animal  body.  It  is  the  pro- 
duct of  catalysis.  Boiling  water  is  the  catalytic  agent,  and 
produces  it  from  tendon,  ligament,  cartilage,  skin  and  bone. 
The  composition  of  these  will  show  at  once  their  relation  to 
proteine  : 

Tendon.  Cartilage,  or  gristle  from  ribs. 

Carbon,  50.874  50.895 

Hydrogen  7.152  6.962 

Nitrogen,  18.320  14.908 

Oxygen,  23.754  23.235 

Scherer. 

Horny  matter  is, equally  allied  to  proteine.  Its  several 
variations  have  been  divided  into  two  classes  :  1st,  soft,  and 
2d,  compact.  The  first  includes  skin,  or  the  outer  part, 
called  cuticle;  and  the  delicate  lining  membrane  of  the 
internal  passages,  and  sacs ;  and  these  substances  are  like 
constituted.  The  cuticle  of  the  sole  of  the  foot  is  composed 
of— 


181  MANURE. 

Carbon,         .         .         .         .  '      .         .         .     50.894 

Hydrogen, 0.781 

Nitrogen,  \         .         .  17.225 

Oxygen,  ) 26.099 

Sulphur,  ) 

100.00 

SAerer. 

Compact  horny  matter  includes  hair,  horn,  nails,  claws, 
hoofs,  scales.  Like  all  the  other  compounds  of  proteine, 
these  contain  sulphur,  lime,  magnesia,  &c.,  and  from  |  to  2 
per  cent,  of  bone  earth.  The  effect  of  these  as  phosphates 
has  been  adverted  to,  section  169.  These  all  give  varied 
portions  of  ashes.  The  beard  gives  about  0.72  per  cent. ; 
blond  colored  hair,  0.3,  and  the  black  hair  of  a  Mexican,  0.2 ; 
nails,  0.5 ;  wool,  2;  and  gelatine  of  bone,  0.7  per  cent,  of 
ashes.  These  all  evolve  ammonia  by  caustic  alkali,  an  effect 
which  might  have  been  predicted  from  their  composition, 
which  is,  according  to  Scherer  : 

Carbon, 
Hydrogen, 

Nitrogen, 

Oxygen,  )      24.043        24.397        25.186    .     24.G08 
Sulphur,   ) 

Hair  affords  a  substance,  in  addition  to  its  proteine,  and 
to  which  feathers  are  analogous.  The,  composition  of  the 
last  is, 

Feather.  Quill. 

Carbon,    ....  50.474  52.427 

Hydrogen,         .         ~        .  9.110  7513 

Nitrogen,  .         .         .         .  17.682  17.893 

Oxygen,    ....  24.774  22.467 


Hair. 

Horn. 

Nails. 

Wool. 

50.652 

51.540 

51.089 

50.653 

6.769 

6.799 

6.824 

7.029 

17.936 

17.284 

16.901 

17.710 

MANURE.  185 

Bone  itself  is  allied  to  protein e  by  its  cartilage,  which 
composes  nearly  one-third  the  weight,  and  which  boiling 
water,  under  pressure,  completely  extracts  in  the  form  of 
gelatine,  or  glue. 

219.  All  these  varied  forms  of  proteine  may  be  tabulated 
so  as  to  express,  at  a  glance,  their  relation  to  each  other,  if 
the  elements,  Carbon,  Hydrogen,  Nitrogen,  and  Oxygen,  are 
expressed  by  C.  H.  N.  O.,  and  to  each  are  added  figures 
which  represent  the  number  of  atoms  entering  into  the  com- 
pound. This  is  called  chemical  notation,  and  each  set  fi 
chemical  formula.  (55.) 

Proteine, C43  H36  Nc  O14 

Gelatine  of  tendons,  .  C48  H41  N7'  O1S 

Chondrine,  or  gelat.  of  rib  cartilage,  C48  H40  N6  O20 

Compact  horny  matter,  hair,     .         .  C48  H89  NT  O17 

Feathers, C48  H39  N7  O16 

But  the  great  practical  lesson,  taught  by  this  similarity  of 
constitution,  is,  that  it  enables  the  chemist  to  present  at  one 
view,  animal  and  vegetable  substances,  as  carbon,  water, 
ammonia,  and  carburetted  hydrogen.  This  is  the  view 
which  the  farmer  takes,  for  he  knows  that  these  are  the  ele- 
ments of  manure.  Proteine  mny  be  resolved  into: 

Hydrogen. 

p    ,  )       4.242  +  0.707=   4.949  Carb.  hydrogen. 

°n>  i    51.500  51.500  Carbon. 

Oxygen,          21.288  +  2.061  =  23.949  Water. 
Nitrogen,        16.143 +  3.459  ==  19.602  Ammonia. 

93.173  +  6.827=100.       Proteine. 

This  is  the  agricultural  view,  and"  expresses  at  once  th.-u 
this  great  variety  of  substances  is  compared  to  cow-dung  as 
32  to  1,  when  used  dry  as  manure,  dung  being  1,  and  pro- 


186  MANURK. 

teine  being  calculated  on  its  nitrogen.  The  physiological 
view  is  this : 

If  ammonia  and  water,  known  compounds  of  nitrogen, 
hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  are  added  in  certain  proportions  to 
proteine,  all  the  gelatinous  tissues,  hair,  horn,  &c.,  will  be 
formed. 

Let  Pr.  represent  proteine,  then 

Proteine.       Ammonia.        Water.      Oxygen. 

Fibrine,  albumen     =    Pr. 
Arterial  membrane  =    Pr.  -j-  2 

Chotidrine  =    Pr.  +4+2 

Hair,  horn  =    Pr.  +1  +3 

Gelatinous  tissues    =2  Pr.  +3  +1         +7 

By  this  view,  horny  matter  exceeds  by  16  per  cent,  and 
the  gelatinous  tissues  by  25  per  cent.,  the  value  of  the  pro- 
teine of  flesh,  blood,  &c. 

220.  For  the  purposes  in  view,  all  animal  and  vegetable 
products  may  be  divided  into  two  classes :  first,  that  which 
does,  and  second,  that  which  does  not,  contain  nitrogen. 
The  action  of  these  is  very  distinct,  on  the  elements  of  soil, 
and  as  manures.     The  first  class  putrefies,  the  second  does 
not.     The  first  class  forms  alkali,  the  second  forms  acids. 
The  action  of  the  first  depends  on  nitrogen,  that  of  the  second 
on  carbon. 

221.  The  first  class  contains  flesh  in  all  its  varieties ;  blood, 
skin,  sinew,  gristle,  cartilage,  tendons,  hair,  feathers,  wool, 
hoofs,  horns,  nails,  scales,  and  one-third,  nearly,  of  bones 
and  teeth.     The  second  class  contains  fats  and  oils  in  all 
their  variety. 

222.  It  is  easily  understood,  then,  how  woollen  rags  and 
flocks  become  powerful  manure.    They  afford  ammonia,  and 
100  Ibs.  containing  17  of  nitrogen,  should   be  34  tiroes 


MANURE.  ]  87 

stronger  than  100  Ibs.  of  fresh  cow-dung.  Connected  with 
flocks  and  wool,  there  is  a  very  valuable  product,  rich  in  all 
the  elements  of  manure,  which  is  often  lost  or  not  used  for 
agricultural  purposes,  namely,  the  sweat,  or  natural  soap  of 
wool.  Fresh  clipped  wool  loses  from  35  to  45  per  cent,  of 
its  weight  by  washing.  This  is  due  to  a  peculiar  matter 
exuded  from  the  wool,  and  which  consists  chiefly  of  potash, 
lime,  and  magnesia,  united  to  a  peculiar  animal  oil,  forming 
au  imperfect  soap.  It  is  remarkable  that  this  soap  of  lime, 
in  all  other  cases  insoluble,  is  here  soluble  in  water.  The 
experience  of  the  best  French  agriculturalists,  is  full  of  tes- 
timony to  the  good  effects  of  this  wool  sweat.  It  has  been 
calculated  that  the  washings  from  wool,  annually  consumed 
in  France,  are  equal  to  manuring  370,000  acres  of  land. 

223.  Bones  consist  of  variable  proportions  of  cartilage, 
bone  earth,  and  carbonate  of  lime.  The  bone  earth  may  be 
estimated  at  one-half  the  weight.  It  is  a  peculiar  phosphate 
of  lime,  containing  3  parts  of  lime  to  1  of  phosphoric  acid. 
A  great  part  of  the  value  of  bone  as  manure,  depends  on  its 
cartilage.  The  animal  part  of  bones  being  one-third  of  their 
weight,  the  ammonia  is  equal  to  8  or  10  times  that  of  cow- 
dung,  while,  if  we  regard  the  salts  only,  100  Ibs.  of  bone- 
dust  contain  nearly  6G  times  as  much  as  an  equal  weight  of 
cow-dung.  Such  statements  while  they  express  the  chemical 
facts,  are  almost,  if  not  quite,  supported  by  the  testimony  of 
those  who  have,  in  practical  agriculture,  applied  these  con- 
centrated animal  manures.  It  is  a  common  opinion,  that 
bones  from  the  soap-boiler  have  lost  a  large  portion  of  their 
animal  matter.  It  is  erroneous.  Boiling,  except  under  high 
pressure,  extracts  very  little  of  the  gelatine,  and  not  all  the 
fat  and  marrow.  Heads  and  shoulder-blades  and  the  smaller 
bones  still  contain,  after  boiling,  3£  per  cent,  of  fat  and  tal- 
low. If  the  phosphate  of  lime  of  such  bones  is  dissolved 


188  MANURE. 

out  by  acid,  the  animal  portion  remains,  with  all  the  form 
and  bulk  of  the  bone.  Bones  which  are  offered  in  the  mar- 
ket, are  quite  as  rich  in  the  elements  above  stated,  as  are 
unboiled  bones.  The  phosphate  of  lime  is  rendered  quite 
soluble  by  its  combination  with  gelatine  and  albumen.  The 
class  of  mixed  manures,  containing  nitrogen,  has  thus  been 
considered.  The  principle  of  their  action  and  the  foundation 
of  their  value,  pointed  out.  The  action  of  the  second  class, 
or  that  not  containing  nitrogen,  remains  to  be  explained. 

224.  All  fats  and  oils  exposed  to  air  give  off  a  quantity 
of  carbonic  acid,  and  end  by  becoming  acids.    As  their  ulti- 
mate elements  are  the  same  as  those  of  plants,  it  may  be 
inferred,  that  under  the  influence  of  growing  plants,  fats  and 
oils  are  decomposed  and  Become  vegetable  food.    But  there 
is  another  action  of  fats  and  oils  on  silicates ;  they  not  only 
let  loose  the  alkali  of  silicates  by  the  carbonic  acid,  which 
they  evolve,  but  the  oils  now  become  acids,  immediately 
combine  with  this  alkali,  and  imperfect  soaps  are  formed. 
Soaps  are  truly  chemical  salts,  and  hence  we  have  at  once  a 
clew  to  the  action  of  oil  and  fat. 

225.  Among  the  most  powerful  of  manures  in  the  class 
composed  of  geine  and  salts,  is  soot.     There  is  no  one  sub- 
stance so  rich  in  both.     Its  composition  allies  it  to  animal 
solids,  and  is  as  follows : 

Geine  (ulmin), 

Nitrogen, 

Salts  of  lime,  mostly  chalk,     . 

Bone-dust,      ....... 

Salts  of  potash  and  soda,  and  ammonia,  . 

Carbon, 

Water,  ........ 

100.00 


MANURE.  189 

On  the  principles  adopted  for  determining  the  value  of 
manure,  the  salts  in  100  Ibs.  of  soot  are  equal  to  1  ton  of 
cow-dung.  Its  nitrogen  gives  it  a  value,  compared  with  cow- 
dung,  as  40  to  1. 

226.  Soot  forms  a  capital  liquid  manure  for  the  floricultur- 
ist. Mixed  with  water,  in  the  proportion  of  6  quarts  of  soot 
to  1  hogshead,  it  has  been  found  to  be  a  most  efficacious 
liquid,  with  which  to  water  green-house  plants;  and  being 
not  only  a  come-at-able,  but  a  comely  preparation,  it  may 
recommend  itself  to  the  cultivator  of  flowers,  by  these  lady- 
like qualities. 

The  most  decided  good  results  have  been  produced  in 
England,  on  Stinchcombe  farm,  containing  200  acres  of 
arable  land,  by  soot,  barn-yard  manure,  and  sheep-dung. 
The  rotation  is  turnips,  potatoes,  wheat.  The  average  pro- 
duce of  the  potatoes,  315  bushels;  of  the  wheat,  28  bushels 
per  acre.  The  turnips  are  manured  by  that  produced  by 
12  oxen  and  5  horses,  4  of  which  are  employed  in  carting 
the  crops  to  market  and  hauling  back  soot,  often  a  distance 
of  25  miles.  The  turnips  are  fed  off  by  sheep,  and  each 
acre  in  turnips  receives  at  the  rate  of  the  manure  of  2000 
sheep  for  one  day  (205).  The  potatoes  and  wheat  are  each 
manured  with  soot  only,  at  the  rate  of  between  11  and  12 
bushels  per  acre.  The  annual  quantity  used  being  about 
3000  bushels,  at  the  cost  of  about  a  6d.  English,  say  12£  cts. 
per  bushel.  By  this  treatment,  for  30  years  the  quantity  of 
crops  and  the  quality  of  the  land  have  improved  year  by 
year.  Anthracite  coal-soot,  as  it  may  be  called,  contains  no 
geine.  It  contains  abundant  salts  of  ammonia.  Mixed  with 
swamp  muck  and  alkali,  at  the  rate  of  two  bushels  per  cord, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  good  effects  of  soft  coal,  or 
wood  soot,  would  be  produced.  The  fine  dust  which  collects 
about  the  flues  of  boilers,  when  anthracite  is  used,  thus 


190  MANURE. 

becomes  of  great  agricultural  value.  From  an  accurate 
experiment  on  100,504  Ibs.  of  coal,  I  find  the  quantity  of  this 
ash,  collecting  about  flues,  is  5.09  per  cent,  of  the  coal  con- 
sumed. 

227.  Among  the  mixed  manures,  is  the  salt,  or  spent  lye 
of  the  soap-boiler.    It  seems  to  offer  a  natural  passage  from 
this  class  to  those  consisting  of  salts  only.     To  understand 
its  components,  the  chemical  composition  of  oil  and  fat  must 
be  briefly   studied.      No  products  of  life  are  now   better 
understood  than  the  fatty  bodies.     They  are  all  acids,  com- 
bined with  a  peculiar  organic  base,  which  acts  the  part  of  an 
oxide.     This  is  never  obtained  except  in  combination  with 
oxygen  and  water.     In   this  state  it  has  long  been  known 
under  the  name  of  glycerine.     The  acids  combined  with  it, 
are  stearic,  margaric,  and  oleic.    By  the  union  of  these  acids 
with  glycerine,  stearine,  and  margarine,  or  fats,  an  oleine 
or  oil  is  produced.     In  soap-making,  the  alkali  used  decom- 
poses stearine  and  oleine,  combining  with  their  acids,  which 
thus  are  converted  into  stearates,  margarates,  and  oleates  of 
alkali,  or  soap,  while  the  glycerine  remain*  free  in  the  spent 
lye  with  the  salts  which  that  contains. 

228.  The  proportion  of  glycerine  in  fat  and  oil,  is  about 
8  per  cent.     Its  composition  is 


Carbon,  40.07  f  The*  .r«  in  wch  ^  Carbon,  24.77 
Oxygen,  51.00  \  gSSft^.S.'Si  \  or  <*-  M-  17 •** 
Hydrogen,  8.92  I  <*"•«"*  Water,  57.37 

Glycerine  is  transparent  and  liquid,  and  was  called  the 
sweet  principle  of  oils,  from  its  sweet  taste. 

229.  The  glycerine  is  thus  the  organic,  or  geine  part  of 
salt  lye.  Its  proportion  in  that  will  vary,  if  the  spent  lye  is 
boiled,  as  is  usual,  upon  a  fresh  portion  of  tallow,  which  adds 


MANURE.  191 

its  quantity  of  glycerine,  in  proportion  to  the  alkali  in  the 
lye. 

230.  The  salts  are  various,  and  depend  on  the  kind  of 
alkali  used  to  form  the  lye.  The  alkali  is  derived  from 
barilla,  from  soda  or  white  ash,  from  potash,  or  from  ashes. 
Hence,  no  general  statement  can  be  given  which  shall  express 
the  value  of  spent  lye  salts.  That  some  idea  may  be  formed 
of  its  components,  it  may  be  divided  into  two  kinds:  1st, 
that  produced  from  soft  soap,  or  from  ashes,  or  potash ; 
2dly,  that  from  hard  soap,  barilla,  or  soda-ash.  A  boil  of 
2000  Ibs.  of  soft  soap  requires  150  bushels  of  ashes,  and  its 
spent  lye  contains,  in  addition  to  a  little  free  potash,  the  fol- 
lowing salts,  derived  from  ashes  : 

130  Ibs.  of  sulphate  of  potash, 
6    ';    of  muriate  of  potash, 
36    "    of  silicate  of  potash, 

allowing  the  ashes  to  have  been  a  mixture  of  oak,  bass,  and 
birch  woods.  Besides  these,  in  the  process  of  soap-making, 
in  order  to  make  the  soap  "grain,"  common  salt  is  added. 
A  chemical  change  is  thus  induced,  the  potash  soap  is  changed 
to  soda  soap,  or  the  soft  to  hard.  The  soda  of  the  salt  enter- 
ing the  soap  is  replaced  by  the  potash,  which  combines  with 
the  acid  of  the  salt,  that  is  chlorine,  or  muriatic  acid.  In 
other  words,  cfommon  salt,  or  chloride  of  sodium,  or  muriate 
of  soda  is  changed  to  chloride  of  potassium,  or  muriate  of 
potash,  which  is  thus  added  to  the  spent  lye.  The  proportion 
of  salt  added,  varies,  but  it  may  be  stated  in  general,  7  bush- 
els, or  500  Ibs.  to  150  bushels  of  ashes.  In  a  boil,  then,  of 
2000  Ibs.  of  soap,  1200  Ibs.  of  flit,  or  tallow,  containing 
100  Ibs.  of  glycerine,  150  bushels  of  ashes,  7  bushels  of  salt, 
afford  about  200  gallons  of  spent  lye.  This  contains  the 
glycerine  and  salts  above  (230),  and  affords,  per  gallon, 


192  MAMKK. 

Geine,  or  glycerine,     5  Ib. 
_         |  Muriate  of  potash,    5£  Ibs. 
'  J  Sulphate  of  potash,  1±  Ib. 
Silicate  of  potash,     2|  oz. 

231.  The  spent  lye  from  soda  soap,  contains  the  sulphate 
and  muriate  of  soda,  of  the  soda  ash,  which  rarely  amounts 
to  12  per  cent.     As  less  salt  is  here  added,  the  spent  lye  is 
less  rich  in  salts.     In  a  boil  of  2000  Ibs.  of  hard  soap,  600 
•weight  of  white  ash  are  used.     Including  the  one  bushel  of 
salt  usually  added,  the  spent  lye  contains, 

Sulphate  of  soda,     84  Ibs.  or,  per  gallon,  6f  oz. 
Muriate  of  soda,     106   "  i  Ib. 

Glycerine,  100   "  "  |  Ib. 

232.  The  value  of  spent  lye  has  been  tested  for  a  series  of 
years.     It  has  shown  its  good  effects  on  grass  lands  for  four 
or  five  years  after  its  application.     There  is  great  advantage 
in  carrying  it  out  upon  snow.     It  has  then  the  effect  of  con- 
verting any  carbonate  of  ammonia  in  the  snow  into  sal- 
ammoniac,  or  a  volatile  into  a  fixed  salt. 

233.  When  it  is  thus  understood  on  what  the  value  of 
spent  lye  depends,  it  would  seem  probable  that  the  fanner 
may  himself  prepare  it ;  and,  unless  he  resides  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  a  soap-boiler,  at  a  cheaper  rate  thdn  he  can  buy 
and  cart  home  this  liquid  manure.     A  hogshead  of  spent 
lye,  of  100  gallons,  contains,  if  from  ashes, 

50  pounds  of  glycerine  or  geine, 
53  "  of  muriate  of  potash, 
13  "  of  sulphate  of  potash. 

The  suite  may  easily  be  supplied.     It  becomes  a  highly 
interesting  question,  whether  the  glycerine  has  any  specific 


MANURE.  193 

action,  any  action  which  the  light  of  chemistry  may  not 
kindle  in  similar  substances.  By  reference  to  (228)  its 
chemical  constitution  approaches  geine,  and  they  are  here 
presented  side  by  side. 

Glycerine.  Geine  of  soil. 

Carbon,  40.07  58.00 

Hydrogen,  8.92  2.18 

Oxygen,  51.00  39.90 

234.  The  glycerine  resolves  itself  into  water,  free  carbon 
and  carburetted  hydrogen,  or  the  gas  of  marshes  or  stagnant 
pools ;  the  geine  into  carbon  and  water.     In  the  series  of 
changes  which  they  may  undergo,  let  it  be  supposed  that 
carburetted  hydrogen  gas  is  evolved  by  glycerine.     There  is 
no  reason  for  assuming,  as  do  some,  that  carbonic  acid  is  the 
only  source  of  the  carbon  of  plants.      The  volumes  of  car- 
buretted hydrogen  produced  in  the  decay  of  plants,  may  be 
intended,  as  well  as  carbonic  acid,  for  their  nutriment.     Sup- 
pose, of  which  there  is  no  doubt,  that  carburetted  hydrogen 
of  glycerine  contributes  to  this  effect,  there  remains  then 
free  carbon,  which,  being  perfectly  insoluble  and  changeless, 
acts  only  by  condensing  gases  in  its  pores. 

235.  Geine,  by  tillage,  air  and  moisture,  evolves  also  car- 
bonic acid.     As  gas,  no  one  will  deny  that  it  thus  affords 
carbon  to  plants ;  its  carbonic  acid  is  absorbed  and  its  car- 
bon  assimilated,  and    hence,  if  either   glycerine   or   geine 
afford  carbon,  the  circumstances  under  which  they  may  be 
applied  to  the  land,  are  less  favorable  to  the  production  of 
carburetted  hydrogen,  than  of  carbonic  acid.     The  balance 
then  is  in  favor  of  geine. 

236.  There  are  two  circumstances  wherein  geine  and  gly- 
cerine differ.     The  latter  is  soluble  to  any  extent  in  water,  it 
is  applied  to  the  land  in  spent  lye,  already  dissolved.     Tin; 


194  MANURE. 

action  so  evident,  is  due  to  one  of  two  causes,  or  to  their 
joint  action.  Spent  lye  acts  either  by  its  organic,  or  by  its 
inorganic  part ;  by  its  glycerine,  or  by  its  salts.  Those  who 
take  the  ground,  that  humus  or  geine  never  is  taken  up  by 
plants,  will  then  attribute  all  the  decided  good  effects  of 
spent  lye  *o  its  salts.  Glauber's  and  common  salts  applied 
in  equal  qv.antity  to  that  contained  in  soda  spent  lye,  should 
produce  equally  good  effects.  It  is  well  known  that  such  is 
not  the  fact.  Nor  will  those  who  maintain  this  doctrine, 
admit  that  glycerine  acts  by  its  evolving  gases,  for  then  an 
equal  weight  of  peat  would  answer.  It  is  well  known  thut 
such  is  not  the  fact. 

237.  If  spent  lye  then  acts  neither  by  its  salts,  nor  its 
evolved  gas,  it  acts  by  the  perfectly  dissolved  state  of  its 
glycerine.     That  such  is  the  case  admits  not  of  a  doubt,  and 
goes  to  show  that  plants  appropriate  the  geine  or  humus  of 
soil,  by  absorbing  it  as  geine  or  geates. 

238.  The  spent  lye  acts  both  by  its  salts  and  its  geine. 
The  action  of  salts  has  been  explained.     The  soluble  state 
of  geine  is  the  most  important  fact  to  be  borne  in  mind,  if  it 
is  attempted  to  make  spent  lye  on  a  farm.     Swamp  muck,  or 
peat,  ashes,  and  common  salt,  will  afford  all  the  elements  of 
spent  lye,  and  the  following  may  be  proposed  as  an  imita- 
tion of  that  from  soda  soap  : 

Fine  dry  snuffy  peat,       ....  50  pounds. 

Salt,        .         .         .         .         .         .  £  bushel. 

Ashes,    ....        .*    '*.        .  1      " 

Water, 100  gallons. 

Mix  the  ashes  and  peat  well  together,  sprinkling  with 
water  to  moisten  a  little.  Let  the  heap  lie  for  a  week. 
Dissolve  the  salt  in  the  water,  in  a  hogshead,  and  add  to  the 
brine  the  mixture  of  peat  and  ashes,  stirring  well  the  while. 


MANURE.  195 

Let  it  be  stirred  occasionally  for  a  week,  and  it  will  be  fit  for 
use.  Apply  it  as  spent  lye,  grounds  and  all.  Both  ashes 
and  salts  may  be  doubled  and  trebled,  with  advantage,  if 
convenient.  The  mixture  of  lye  must  be  used  before  it 
begins  to  putrefy  ;  this  occurs  in  three  or  four  weeks.  It 
then  evolves  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas,  or  the  smell  of  gas 
of  rotten  eggs.  This  arises  from  the  decomposition  of  the 
sulphates  in  the  water  and  ashes,  by  the  vegetable  matter. 
A  portion  of  the  geine  is  thus  deposited  from  the  solution. 
(See  Appendix  for  the  trial  of  this  lye.) 

239.  Having  thus  considered  the  class  of  mixed  manures, 
or  those  composed  of  geine  and  salts,  those  consisting  of 
salts  only  are  to  be  now  explained.     They  are  next  in  value 
to  the  mixed  manures.     They  are  chiefly  the  liquid  evacua- 
tions of  animals,  and  when  artificially  combined  with  geine, 
their   value  exceeds  that   of  the  solid   evacuations.     These 
liquids  equal,  in  fact,  the  mixed  manures  of  the  most  fertiliz- 
ing energy.     The  liquid  evacuations  are  truly  salts  only,  dis- 
solved in  water ;  but  they  are  salts  of  a  peculiar  character 
in  many  cases,  and  are  formed  of  an  animal  acid.     This  is 
it  which  renders  a  detailed  account  of  these  manures  inter- 
esting to  the  farmer.     It  is  not  enough  for  this  purpose  to 
refer  the  action  of  these  liquids  to  the  general  effect  of  salts 
or  mineral  manures. 

240.  The  peculiar  animal  acid  to  which  reference  has  been 
made,  becomes,  like  nitric  acid  in  nitrates,  the  food  of  plants. 
The  element  from  which  it  is  derived  gives  a  marked  and 
highly  valuable  character  to  the  liquid  evacuations  of  the 
farm-yard  and  household.     This  peculiar  animal  principle  is 
urea.     It  may  be  obtained  from  these  liquids  in  transparent 
but  colorless  crystals,  of  a  faint  but  peculiar  odor.     Cold 
water  dissolves  more  than  its  weight,  and  boiling  water  an 
indefinite  quantity  of  crystals  of  urea.     The  pure  crystals 


190  MANURE. 

undergo  no  change  when  dissolved  in  pure  water,  but  if  they 
are  mixed  with  the  other  ingredients  of  the  urine,  decompo- 
sition rapidly  ensues,  and  they  are  resolved  almost  entirely 
into  carbonate  of  ammonia.  Alkalies  and  alkaline  earths 
induce  similar  changes  on  urea.  The  practical  value  of  this 
fact  will  be  easily  understood. 

241.  Pure  urea  has  no  distinct  alkaline  properties.     It 
unites  with  aqua  fortis,  or  nitric  acid,  and  forms  a  sparingly 
soluble  salt,  composed  of  about  equal  parts  of  each  of  its 
ingredients. 

242.  Urea  is  composed,  according  to  Dr.  Prout,  of  car- 
bon 19.99,  oxygen  26.66,  hydrogen  6.66,  nitrogen,  46.66. 
These  elements  are  so  beautifully  balanced,  that  they  afford 
only  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia;  though  the  chemistry  of 
every  reader  may  not  understand  how  these  elements  pro- 
duce cyanic  acid  and  ammonia.     The  salt  cyanate  of  ammo- 
nia, has  actually  been  formed  by  modern  chemwtry,  which 
has  thus  succeeded  in  forming  a  true  organic  product,  or 
product  of  living  action,  or  rather  of  chemical  action  guided 
by   living  principle.     In  all   animal  evacuations  containing 
urea,  that   may   be  considered   as  so  much  carbonate   of 
ammonia  of  the  shops.     Hence  it  is  the  urea  in  urine  which 
gives  that  liquid  so  great  a  value.     Urine  is  richer  in  ammo- 
nia than  flesh  or  blood. 

243.  The  peculiar  animal  acid  which  has  been  mentioned 
as  forming  so  essential  a  part  in  these  liquid  excretions,  is 
called  uric  acid.     It  is  not,  like  urea,  changed  by  exposure 
into   ammonia.     It   contains   a   large  portion   of  nitrogen, 
which,  under  the  influence  of  growing  plant*,  is  let  loose,  and 
may  then  form  ammonia.     Its  composition  is  as  follows : 
carbon  36.11,  hydrogen,  2.34,  oxygen  28.19,  nitrogen  33.36. 

The  peculiar  principles  of  the  liquid  evacuations  having 
been  explained,  their  constitution  may  be  now  stated.    They 


MANURE. 


197 


are,  it  wilt  be  remembered,  at  the  head  of  the  class  of 
manures  composed  of  salts.  First,  the  liquid  evacuation  of 
cattle,  what  is  its  agricultural  value  as  a  manure  1  Its  com- 
position will  form  the  answer. 

Cow's  urine  was  long  ago  examined  by  Rouelle  and  by 
Brandt,  whose  results  have  formed  the  basis  of  all  calcula- 
tions of  its  value  for  almost  half  a  century.  The  results  are 
evidently  defective.  The  more  exact  analysis  of  cattle 
urine,  by  Sprengel,  who  has  devoted  particular  care  to  the 
subject,  gives,  as  the  average  of  many  trials,  the  following,  in 
1000  pounds : 


Water,          

.     926.24 

Urea,    ....... 

.       40.00 

Albumen,      

.10 

Mucus  or  slime,     ..... 

1.90 

Hippuric  acid,      ] 

_         .          .  ,                        Combined  with  potash,    1 
LactlC  acid,                 f-  soda  and  ammonia,  form-  T 

.90 
5.16 

r^      i         •            •  j               lnS  sal'8) 

Carbonic  acid,      \                                    ( 

2.56 

Ammonia,    ...... 

2.05 

Potash,         ...... 

6.64 

Soda,    

5.54 

Sulphuric  acid,      1 

_.          .                  .  -               Combined  with  soda, 
Phosphoric  aCtd,     |-  lime  and  magnesia,  form-  -\ 

4.05 
.70 

m,i      •                                ing  saltfc, 

Chlorine,                J                                     [ 

2.72 

Lime,  ....... 

.65 

Magnesia,      ...... 

.36 

Alumina,       ...... 

.02 

Oxide  of  iron,         ..... 

.04 

Oxide  of  manganese,      .... 

.01 

Silica,  

.36 

1000.00 
Let  this  now  be  compared  with   the  standard  of  value, 


198  MANURE. 

cow-dung.  100  Ibs.  of  that  afford  2  Ibs.  of  carbonate  of 
ammonia  ;  while  this  evacuation  gives  4  Ibs.  of  ammonia  in 
its  urea,  besides  that  in  its  other  ammoniacal  salts. 

244.  The  quantity  of  liquid  manure  produced  by  one  cow 
annually,  is  equal  to  fertilizing  1£  acre  of  ground,  producing 
effects  as  durable  as  do  the  solid  evacuations.     A  cord  of 
loam,  saturated  with  urine,  is  equal  to  a  cord  of  the  best 
rotted  dung ;  and  the  fresh  urine  of  one  cow  is  valued  in 
Flanders  at  $10  per  annum.     If  the  liquid  and  the  solid 
evacuations  including  the  litter,  are  kept  separate,  and  the 
liquid  is  soaked  up  by  loam,  it  has  been  found  they  will 
manure  land,  in  proportion  by  bulk  of  7  liquid  to  6  solid, 
while  their  actual  value  is  as  2  to  1 

245.  100  Ibs.  of  cattle  urine  afford  about  8  Ibs.  of  the 
most  powerful  salts  which  have  ever  been  used  by  farmers. 
The  simple  statement  then,  in  figures,  of  difference  in  value 
of  the  solid  and  liquid  evacuations  of  cattle,  should  impress 
upon  all  the  importance  of  saving  the  last  in  preference  to 
the  first.     Let  both  be  saved.     If  the  liquids  contained  natu- 
rally, geine,  they  might  be  applied  alone.     It  is  the  want  of 
that  guiding  principle  which  teaches  that  salts  and  geine 
should  go  hand  in  hand,  which  has  sometimes  led  to  results 
in  the  application  of  the  liquor,  which  have  given  this  sul>- 
stance  a  bad  name. 

246.  It  has  been  proved  that  the  ammoniacal   salts  of 
urine  have  a  forcing  power  on  vegetation.     The  value  of 
ammonia  was  long  ago  understood  by  Davy,  and  its  carbon- 
ate  was  his  favorite  application.     Plants   watered  with  a 
simple  solution  of  sulphate  of  ammonia,  an  abundant  salt  in 
cow's  urine,  are  15  days  earlier  than  those  watered  with 
pure  water.     Grass  land  watered  with  urine  only,  yields 
nearly  double  to  that  not  so  manured.     In  a  garden  on  land 
of  very  poor  quality,  near  Glasgow,  urine  diluted  with  water, 


MANURE.  199 

lu-arly  doubled  the  grass.  But  upon  wheat,  sown  on  clay 
land,  it  did  no  good;  it  injured  barley,  potatoes  grew  rank 
and  watery,  and  on  turnips  the  effects  were  only  half  as  good 
as  mere  un fermented  dung.  The  circumstance  of  the  soil 
in  this  last  case,  was  probably  a  deficiency  of  geine. 

247.  The  liquid  evacuation  of  the  horse  is  composed,  ac- 
cording to  Boussingault,  of 

Carbon, •  4.46 

Hydrogen, 0.47 

Oxygen .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .40 

Nitrogen.         .......       1.55 

Salts,      . 4.51 

Water, 87.61 

Other  analysts  have  found  in  horse  urine, 

Water, 94. 

Urea, 7 

Chalk 1.1 

Carbonate  of  soda,   ......         .9 

Hippurate  of  soda,    ......       2.4 

Muriate  of  potash,     ......         .9 

The  hippuric  acid  is  not  peculiar  to  the  horse.  The  urine 
of  most  herbiverous  animals  contains  hippurate,  formerly 
called  benzoate  of  soda,  its  acid  having  the  fragrance  of  gum 
benzoin.  If  man  takes  benzoic  acid,  hippuric  replaces  uric 
acid  in  the  urine.  According  to  the  composition,  horse  stale, 
pound  for  pound,  is  equal  to  the  value  of  cow-dung. 
Sprengel  found  the  urine  of  sheep  to  afford,  in  1000  Ibs., 

Water, 980 

Urea,  with  some  albumen, .....       28 
Salts  of  potash,  soda,  lime,  magnesia,  with  traces 
of  silica,  alumina,  iron  and  manganese,     .         .       12 

1000 


200  MANURE. 

No  animal  affords  more  urine  than  the  hog.  Owing  to  a 
peculiar  volatile  and  unexamined  substance,  it  gives  plants 
and  roots  a  disagreeable  taste.  Fed  on  grains  and  bran,  the 
urine  in  1000  Ibs.  affo  -ds, 

Water 926. 

Urea,  with  a  little  slime  and  albumen,    .         .       56.40 
Salts,  common  salt,  muriate  of  potash,  gyp- 
sum, chalk,  Glauber's  salts,        .         .         .       17.60 


1000.00 

Fromberg  has  examined  the  urine  of  a  sheep,  and  Von 
Bibra  that  of  the  horse,  ox,  and  pig.  These  later  analyses 
have  been  thus  tabulated  by  Johnston : 


MANURE. 


201 


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202  MANURE. 

248.  But  rich  as  are  the  liquid  evacuations  of  the  stable 
and  cow-yard,  they  are  surpassed  by  those  of  the  farmer's 
own  dwelling,  especially  when  it  is  considered  with  what 
ease  these  last  may  be  saved.  According  to  Dr.  Thomson, 
1000  parts  of  this  substance,  the  human  liquid  evacuation, 
contain  42£  Ibs.  nearly  of  salts,  which  are, 

Sal-ammoniac,       .         .        ...        .        .  .459 

Sulphate  of  potash, 2.112 

Muriate  of  potash, 3.674 

Common  salt,        .         .         .         .         .         .  5.060 

Phosphate  of  soda, 4.267 

Bone-dust,  (phosphate  of  lime,)      .         .         .  .209 

Acetate  of  soda, 2.770 

Urate  of  ammonia, .298 

Urea  with  coloring  matter,    .  ,               .         .  23.640 

42489 
Water, 957.511 

There  is  scarcely  a  single  element  in  this  liquid  which  is 

not  an  essential  ingredient  of  plants. 

In  every  100  Ibs. 
Of  cattle  urine,  are          .         .         .4.      Ibs.  of  urea. 

Of  horse  urine, 70    "         " 

Of  human  urine,     ....     2.36    "         " 
Of  sheep  urine,       ....    2.80    "         " 

Of  hog  urine, 5.64    "        " 

It  is  at  once  seen  how  valuable  arc  swine  as  manufacturers 

of  manure. 

It  will  be  noted,  that  by  the  table  (247),  pigs'  urine,  like 

human,  contains  phosphates,  of  which  the  urine  of  the  ox, 

horse,   and   sheep,  are   destitute,   or  contain   traces   only. 

Hence  pigs'  urine  is  more  valuable  than  that  of  horses  and 

cattle,  not  only  by  its  urea,  but  by  its  salts. 


MANURE.  203 

249.  The  urea  being  called  equal  to  ammonia,  it  is  seen 
that  the  ammoniacal  salts  in  human  urine   are  very  nearly 
the  same  as  those  in  cow-dung,  but  its  effects  in  actual  prac- 
tice are  found  to  be  nearly  double  those  in  cow-dung.     The 
actual  amount  of  salts  in   100  parts  of  human,  cow,  and 
horse-dung,  is  in  round  numbers,  1  per  cent.,  while  in  the 
liquids  it  averages  5.88,  being  in  the  cow  7.4,  and  in  the 
human  4.24  per  cent.,  horse  6,  according  to  Sprengel. 

250.  All  urine  of  course  varies  with  the  food  of  the  ani- 
mal, the  season,  and  its  age.     White  turnips  give  a  weaker 
liquor  than  Swedish.     Green  grass  is  still  worse.     Distillers' 
grains  are  said  to  be  better  than  either  of  these.     The  more 
water  the  animal  drinks,  the  poorer  the  urine.     Doubtless 
the  liquids  of  fattening  kine  are  richer  in  ammonia  during 
this  period,  for  it  contains  a  part  of  that  nitrogen  not  carried 
away  in  milk.    In  winter,  urine  contains  much  less  urea  than 
in  summer,  sometimes  only  one-half.     Putrefaction  changes 
urea  to  ammonia.    The  time  required  for  this  varies.     Urine 
putrefying  for  a  month,  contains  double  the  ammonia  of 
fresh  urine.     It  does  not  wholly  decompose  in  a  month  ;  but 
during  all  this  time,  gives  off  ammonia.     Unless  then  mixed 
with  loam,  or  peat,  or  swamp  muck,  or  where  kept  in  tanks, 
with  thrice  its  bulk  of  water,  or  with  oil  of  vitriol,  3  Ibs.  to 
100  gallons  of  urine,  or  with  plaster,  copperas,  or  other  sub- 
stances which  will  form  a  fixed  salt  with  ammonijj,  that  will 
escape.     Urine  is  fully  ripe,  when  it  contains  neither  caustic 
ammonia,  nor  urea. 

Food,  exercise,  age,  condition,  and  sex  of  the  animal,  alter 
the  quality,  and  affect  the  quantity  of  the  urine  discharged. 
It  becomes  therefore  an  interesting  question,  What  is  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  urine  which  various  animals  discharge 
daily  and  yearly  ? 

On  the  average,  a  healthy 


20  i  MANURE. 

Solid  Ibs. 

Mnn  excretes  in  24  hours,   3  pinu  or  1000  !b*.  per  annum,  giving 80  to    170 
Horse       "        "        "         3    "          1000  "  «      60  to    124 

Cow         '•        "        "       40    "  7000  to  12000  "    490  to  1440 


Unless  she  is  a  milch  cow,  when  the  quantity  is  affected  by 
that  of  the  milk;  the  more  milk,  the  less  urine. 

The  abundant  urine  of  a  cow,  though  containing  less  solid 
matter  than  that  of  a  horse,  yet  agriculturally,  it  is  more^ 
valuable.  Quantity  more  than  compensates  for  quality. 

The  quantity  of  liquid  drank  affects  little  that  of  the 'urine 
discharged  by  cattle  and  other  animals,  while  in  man  the 
result  is  different. 

Man  discharges  nearly  all  the  water  drank,  as  urine; 
while  a  horse  which  drank  in  24  hours  35  pints  of  water, 
evacuated  3  pints  of  urine,  and  a  cow  which  drank  iu  24 
hours  132  pints  of  water,  evacuated  18  pints  of  urine,  and 
gave  19  pints  of  milk.  By  the  late  trials  of  Barral,  common 
salt  appears  to  increase  the  amount  of  nitrogen  and  urea  in 
the  excrements.  An  important  hint  for  the  use  of  salt  in 
feeding  animals. 

It  has  been  proposed  by  Stenhouse,  to  add  milky  lime 
(slacked  lime  diffused  in  water)  to  urine,  to  stir  it  well,  and 
let  it  settle.  A  portion  of  phosphoric  acid  is  thus  separated, 
as  phosphate  of  lime.  Air-slacked  lime  may  be  also  thus 
used,  the  powder  being  sprinkled  into  the  urine,  and  well 
stirred.  The  clear  liquor  may  be  run  ofl^  but  this  is  a  loss. 
Phosphates  only  are  thus  saved.  Hence  that  great  practical 
farmer  and  chemist,  Boussingault,  has  proposed  to  add  a 
solution  of  magnesian  salts  to  urine.  For  this  purpose 
Epsom  salts  may  be  employed,  while  those  who  live  near 
salt  works  may  use  the  "  Bittern  "  liquor,  or  muriate  of 
magnesia,  for  this  purpose.  By  this  process,  both  a  portion 
ol  the  ammonia  and  phosphoric  acid  are  separated  and  fall 


MANURE.  205 

down  from  tne  urine,  as  ammonia-]: hosphate  of  magnesia. 
This  is  a  valuable  manure  for  potatoes. 

Each  pint  of  human  urine  will  produce  a  pound  of  wheat. 
Each  pound  of  ammonia  is  equal  to  a  bushel  of  grain. 
Whatever  may  be  the  food,  it  is  evident  from  the  above 
statements,  that  rivers  of  riches  run  away  from  farms,  from 
want  of  attention  to  saving  that  which  ordinarily  is  allowed 
to  be  wasted. 

251.  Each   man   evacuates,   annually,   enough    salts    to 
manure  an  acre  of  land.     Some  form  of  geine  only  is  to  be 
added  to  keep  the  land  in  heart,  if  the  farmer  ha,s  but  the 
heart  to  collect  and  use  that  which  many  allow,  like  the 
flower  unseen,  "  to  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air." 

252.  But  with  all  the  farmer's  care,  with  every  convenience 
for  collecting  and  preserving  these  animal  products,  still  the 
amount  which  can  be  so  collected,  is  often  wholly  inadequate 
to  the  wants  of  the  former  of  small  means.     All  these  accu- 
mulations presuppose  a  goodly  stock  of  animals  on  the  farm. 

This  again  is  limited  by  the  means  of  keeping,  and  so  one 
influences  the  other.  The  farmer  wants  some  source  of 
manure,  which  while  it  produces  the  salts  and  geine  of  an 
unlimited  amount  of  stock,  hogs  and  hens,  shall  yet  require 
no  more  barn-room,  fodder  or  team,  than  every  man  who 
means  that  his  hands  and  lands  shall  shelter,  feed,  and  clothe 
him,  can  easily  command. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

ARTIFICIAL    MANURES,    AND    IRRIGATION. 

253.  THE  class  of  salts,  as  manure,  is  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  salts  called  mineral  manures,  by  this  circumstance, 
that  they  contain  large  portions  of  peculiar  animal  products 
called  urea  and  uric  acid.     These  afford  ammonia  in  large 
quantity  by   their  decomposition.     Having  considered  the 
relative  value  of  the  two  classes  of  manure,  those  composed 
of  salts,  and  of  salts  and  geine,  that  consisting  chiefly  of 
geine  is  now  to  be  explained. 

254.  First  and  foremost  in  this  class,  is  swamp-muck, 
mud,  or  peat.-   This  class  includes,  also,  dry  leaves,  dry 
vegetables  of  all  sorts ;  ploughing  in  of  green  or  dry  crops, 
irrigation.     These  are  fruitful  topics.     The  principles  only 
of  their  action  can  be  pointed  out.     The  application  of  the 
principle  must  be  left  to  the  farmer.     The  why  of  things  has 
been  or  will  be  shown ;  the  how  must  be  deduced  from  the 
why  by  practical  men. 

255.  Peat  is  too  well  known  to  render  it  necessary  to  say 
that  it  is  the  result  of  that  spontaneous  change  in  vegetable 
matter,   which   ends   in   geine.     Peat   is,   among  manures 
consisting  chiefly  of  geine,  what  bone-dust  is  among  manures 
consisting  of  animal  matter.     Peat  is  highly  concentrated 
vegetable  food.     When  the  state  in  which  this  food  exists  is 
examined,  it  is  found  not  only  partly  cooked  but  seasoned. 

256.  Peat  consists  of  soluble  and  insoluble  geine,  and  salts. 

(206) 


ARTIFICIAL   MANURE. 


207 


The  proportion  of  these  several  ingredients  must  be  known 
before  the  value  of  peat  can  be  compared  with  similar  con- 
stituents in  cow-dung.  This  proportion  is  exhibited  in  the 
following  table  of  constitution  of  Massachusetts  peat  per 
100  parts : 


Soluble 

Insoluble 

Total 

Salts  and 

Locality. 

Geine. 

Geine. 

Geine. 

Silicates. 

1.  Dracut, 

14.00 

72.00 

86.00 

14.00 

2.  Sunderland, 

26.00 

56.60 

82.60 

14.40 

3.  Westborough, 

48.80 

43.60 

92.40 

7.60 

4.  Hadley, 

34.00 

60.00 

94.00 

6.00 

5.  Northampton, 

38.30 

44.15 

82.45 

17.55 

6. 

32.00 

54.90 

86.90 

13.10 

7. 

12.00 

.  60.85 

72.85 

27.15 

8. 

10.00 

49.45 

59.45 

40.55 

9. 

33.00 

59.00 

92.00 

8.00 

10. 

46.00 

46.80 

92.80 

7.20 

Average. 

11.  Watertown, 

12.  Danvers, 


29.41       54.73       84.14       15.55 


5.10 

8.10 


8.90 
6.50 


14.00 
14.60 


86.00 
84.40 


257.  Under  the  general  name  of  peat,  are  comprised  sev- 
eral varieties,  which  may  be  distinguished  as,  1st.  Peat,  the 
compact  substance  generally  known  and  used  for  fuel,  under 
this  name.  2d.  Turf,  or  swamp-muck,  by  which  is  to  be 
understood  the  paring  which  is  removed  before  peat  is  dug. 
It  is  a  less  compact  variety  of  peat.  It  is  common  in  all 
meadows  and  swamps,  and  includes  the  hassocks.  Both  these 
varieties  are  included  in  the  above,  from  No.  1  to  No.  10. 
It  includes,  also,  the  mud  of  salt-marshes.  3d.  Pond  mud, 
the  slushy  material  found  at  the  bottom  of  ponds  when  dry, 
or  in  low  grounds,  the  wash  of  higher  lands.  This  seldom 


208  ARTIFICIAL   MANURE. 

contains  more  than  20  per  cent,  of  geine.     Nos.  11  and  12 
are  of  this  description. 

258.  These  varieties  comprise  probably  a  fuir  sample  of 
all  the  peat  and  swamp  muck  and  pond  mud  which  occur  in 
the  various  parts  of  the  country.     The  results  stated  (256), 
are  those  of  the  several  varieties  when  dried  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  240°  F.     The  composition  of  peat  ashes  has  been 
alluded  to   (163).     They  contain,  in  fact,  all  the  inorganic 
principles  of  plants  which   are   insoluble,  with   occasional 
traces  of  the  soluble  alkaline  sulphates,  and  of  free  alkali. 
Twenty  samples  of  peat,  from  various  localities  in  Rhode 
Island,  afforded  Dr.  C.  T.  Jackson  an  average  of  72  vegeta- 
ble matter,  24  ashes,  in  100  parts,  dried  at  300° 

Silica  formed  £  of  the  ashes.     The  remaining  salts  were 
similar  to  those  which  have  been  mentioned. 

259.  It  is  well  known  that  all  peat  shrinks  by  drying,  and 
when  perfectly  dried  at  240°  F.,  loses  from  73  to  97  per 
cent,  of  water.     When  allowed  to  drain  as  dry  as  it  will,  it 
still  contains  about  £  of  its  weight  of  water.    It  shrinks  from 
^  to  ^  of  its  bulk.     A  cord  wet  becomes  ^  to  \  of  a  cord 
when  dry.    To  compare  its  value  with  cow-dung,  equal  bulks 
must  be  taken,  and  hence,  to  dry  peat  a  bulk  of  water  must 
be  supposed  to  be  added,  in  proportion  above  stated,  or  still 
better,  because  easier  done,  the  pile  of  dry  peat  is  to  be  esti- 
mated by  the  pit  left  after  digging.     It  will  be  found,  on  the 
above  data,  that  100  parts  of  fresh  dug  peat,  of  average  qual- 
ity, contain, — 

Water, 85.00 

Salts  of  lime, 00.50 

Silicates,         ' 00.50 

Geine, 14.00 

100.00 


ARTIFICIAL    MANURE.  '209 

This  does  not  differ  much  from  fresh  cow-dung,  so  far  as 
.suits,  geine,  and  water  are  concerned.  The  salts  of  lime  are 
aetutiily  about  the  same,  while  the  alumina,  oxide  of  iron,  mag- 
nesia in  the  silicates  added  to  the  salts  of  lime,  make  the  total 
amount  of  salts,  in  round  numbers,  equal  that  of  cow-dung. 

If  the  bulks  of  these  are  compared,  it  will  be  found  that, 
at  90  Ibs.  per  bushel,  full  measure,  and  103  bushels  being 
allowed  to  a  cord,  each  contains  and  weighs  as  follows,  in 
pounds : 

Weight.       Soluble      Insoluble        Total       Salts  oi 
Geine.         Geine.          Geine.       Lime. 

Dung,  .  .  .  9289  128  1288  1416  92 
No.  9  peat  of  table,  9216  376  673  1049  91 
No.  10  "  "  9216  519  529  1048  81 

A  cord  of  pond  mud,  (No.  11,)  weighs  when  dug,  6117 
Ibs.,  and  contains  solid  matter,  3495  Ibs.,  composed  of  geinc, 
495  Ibs.,  of  silicates  and  salts,  3005  Ibs.  The  salts  of  lime 
in  pond  mud  are  2£  per  cent. 

260.  The  salts  and  geine  of  a  cord  of  peat  are  equal  to 
the  manure  of  one  cow  for  three  months.  It  is  certainly  a 
very  curious  coincidence  of  results,  that  nature  herself  should 
have  prepared  a  substance,  whose  agricultural  value  ap- 
proaches so  near  cow-dung,  the  type  of  manures.  This  sub- 
ject may  have  been  now  sufficiently  explained.  Departing 
from  cow-dung  and  wandering  through  all  the  varieties  of 
animal  and  vegetable  manures,  we  land  in  a  peat-bog.  The 
substance  under  our  feet  is  analyzed,  and  found  to  be  cow- 
dung,  without  its  musky  breath  of  cow  odor,  or  the  power 
of  generating  ammonia,  except  in  some  varieties  of  peat. 
The:->e  always  heat  when  piled.  The  various  transformations 
of  geine  have  not  ceased  in  peat  which  naturally  ferments, 
such  is  always  preferable  in  agriculture.  But  generally  the 
power  of  forming  ammonia  has  ceased  to  be  active.  That 


210  ARTIFICIAL    MAXCRK. 

process  is  generally  over,  a  part  of  the  ammonia  remains, 
still  evident  to  the  senses  by  adding  caustic  potash.  It  exists 
in  part,  either  as  a  compound  of  crenic  and  apocrenic  acid, 
or  other  forms  of  geine,  or  as  phosphate  of  ammonia,  and 
when  the  presence  of  ammonia  is  added  to  the  salts,  whose 
existence  has  already  been  pointed  out,  it  may  be  said  that 
peat  approaches  dung  moistened  with  the  liquid  evacuation 
of  the  animal. 

261.  The  power  of  producing  alkaline  action,  on  the  insol- 
uble geine,  is  alone  wanted  to  make  peat  as  good  as  cow- 
dung.    Reviewing  the  various  matters,  from  whatever  source 
derived,  solid  or  liquid,  which  are  used  as  manure,  all  possess 
one  common  property,  that  of  generating  ammonia.     The 
conclusion  then  of  this  whole  matter  is  this :  the  value  of  all 
manures  depends  on  salts,  geine,  and  ammonia;  and  it  is'di- 
rectly  in  proportion  to  the  last ;  it  follows,  that  any  substance 
affording  these  elements  may  be  substituted  for  manure. 

262.  The  great  question  comes,  How  is  to  be  given  to 
peat,  a  substance  which,  in  all  its  other  characters,  is  so  nearly 
allied  to  cow-dung,  that  lacking  element  ammonia?    How  is 
that  to  be  supplied  ?     Without  it,  cow-dung  itself  would  be 
no  better  than  peat,  nay,  not  so  good;  for  in  peat,  nearly  one- 
half  of  the  geine  is  already  in  a  soluble  state.     Passing  by 
the  fact,  already  alluded  to,  that  peat  contains  traces  of  am- 
monia, which,  evolved   when  treated  with  caustic  potash, 
exerts  its  usual  action,  it  may  be  added  that,  possibly  in  the 
process  of  vegetation,  when  the  decomposing  power  of  the 
living  plant  is  exerted  on  peat,  and  the  silicates,  caustic  pot- 
ash is  produced,  and  ammonia  evolved.     Considering  peat 
as  a  source  of  nitrogen  only,  it  is  evident  that  the  action  of 
alkali  is  of  the  highest  practical  importance. 

263.  In  this  part  of  the  subject  of  manure,  probabilities 
and  possibilities  are  no  longer  admissible.     There  are  two 


ARTIFICIAL   MANURE.  211 

facts  well  established  by  experience,  relating  to  the  action  of 
ammonia  in  dung.  First,  it  has  been  shown  (166)  that  dung 
produces  nitrates.  Porous  substances  and  alkali  possess  the 
power  of  forming  nitrates ;  alkali  and  porous  substances 
act  like  spongy  platina,  they  induce  a  catalytic  power, 
and  the  consequence  is,  that  the  elements  of  the  air,  oxygen 
and  nitrogen,  unite  and  form  nitric  acid,  this  combines  with 
the  alkali,  and  consequently  nitrates  are  produced.  The 
other  well-established  fact,  in  relation  to  the  action  of  am- 
monia in  dung,  is  the  power  of  dissolving  and  converting 
geine,  which  has  been  explained  in  Chap.  IV.  The  most 
valuable  of  these  two  properties  is  that  of  producing  soluble 
geine.  The  formation  of  nitrates  may  be  quite,  and  ordina- 
rily is  prevented.  It  is  the  alkaline  action  which  is  sought. 

264.  By  the  addition  of  alkali  to  peat,  it  is  put  into  the 
state  which  ammonia  gives  to  dung.  The  question  then 
arises,  How  much  alkali  is  to  be  added  to  swamp  muck  or 
peat,  to  convert  that  into  cow-dung  ?  Recurring  to  the  doc- 
trine of  chemical  proportions,  whose  value  to  the  farmer  is 
thus  made  evident,  it  will  be  remembered  that  the  equiva- 
lent of  pure  potash  and  soda,  that  is,  that  portion  of  one 
which  can  take  the  place  of  the  other,  is  as  2  to  3 ;  that  is, 
2  parts  of  pure  soda  ai*e  equal  to  3  of  pure  potash.  If  either 
of  these  is  compared  with  ammonia,  it  will  be  found  that  one 
part  of  pure  ammonia  is  nearly  equal  to  two  of  soda.  When 
these  substances  are  met  with  in  commerce,  it  is  in  the  state 
of  salts,  as  carbonate  of  ammonia  of  the  shops,  white  ash, 
or  soda  ash,  or  potash  and  pearlash.  The  equivalent  of  these 
is  deduced  from  determining  the  pure  alkali  of  each,  and 
adding  the  equivalent  of  carbonic  acid.  It  is  found  that, 

59  Ibs.  of  pure  carbonate  of  ammonia  are  equal  to 

54  Ibs.  "  soda,  or  to 

70  Ibs.  "  potash. 


212  ARTIFICIAL   MANURE. 

But  unless  the  impurities  of  the  commercial  alkalies  arc 
known  it  may  not  be  prudent  to  substitute  pot  or  pearlashes, 
and  soda  or  white  ash,  either  for  one  another,  or  for  ammonia 
in  the  usual  state,  in  the  above  proportions.  All  alkalies 
in  the  market  are  now  much  purer  than  formerly. 

1st  quality  pot  and  pearlashes  contain,  on  the  average,  83 
per  cent,  of  carbonate,  and  no  perfectly  caustic  alkali.  2d 
quality  pots  and  pearls  average  71  per  cent,  carbonate. 
English  soda  ash  contains  in  its  perfectly  dry  state  81.5  per 
cent,  of  pure  carbonate,  and  about  2.75  of  caustic  soda  = 
4.68  carbonate,  or  the  total  carbonate  is  equal  to  86  per 
cent.,  which,  in  the  commercial  state  of  fair  soda  ash  is  equal 
to  80  per  cent. 

The  proportions  then  become, 

59  pure  carb.  ammonia  =  61  commercial, 

54         "          soda         —  67  soda  ash  of  80  per  cent. 

70  potash      =84,  1st  qual.  pots  or  pearls, 

70 '       «  "          =  98, 2d      "       "  " 

Fortunately  for  agriculture,  rigid  accuracy  is  not  here 
required.  The  farmer  need  not  fear  to  use  the  commercial 
alkalies  because  he  knows  not  their  chemical  composition. 

265.  For  all  agricultural  purposes,  it  may  be  considered, 
that  salts  of  hartshorn,  or  carbonate  of  ammonia,  and  white 
or  soda  ash,  are  equal,  pound  for  pound,  and  that  pots  and 
pearls  may  be  taken  at  one-half  more. 

266.  If  all  the  nitrogen  in  dung  becomes  ammonia,  then, 
as  has  been  shown  (187),  each  100  Ibs.  affords  2  Ibs.  2  oz. 
Discarding  fractions,  let  it   be  called  2  Ibs.     Hence,  if  to 
100  Ibs.  fresh  dug  peat,  there  are  added  2  Ibs.  soda  a^h,  or 
3  Ibs.  of  pot  or  pearl  ashes,  all  the  good  effects  of  real  co»v- 
dung  will  be  produced.     Peat  or  muck  thus  requires  2  per 
cent,  of  soda  ash,  or  3  per  cent,  of  potash. 


ARTIFICIAL   MANURE.  213 

267.  By  (259)  a  cord  of  green  peat  weighs  9216  Ibs. ;  2 
per  cent,  are  184  Ibs.     Hence  a  cord  requires  that  amount 
of  soda  ash,  or  276  Ibs.  of  potash.     But  if  the  peat  is  quite 
dry,  so  as  to  have  lost  |-  of  its  bulk,  then  736  Ibs.  of  soda 
ash,  or  1104  Ibs.  potash  will  be  necessary.     Two  per  cent, 
of  alkali  seems  enormous.     It  is  stated,  in  the  hope  that  it 
may  lead  to  experiments  on  the  free  use  of  alkali.     But  as 
it  will  be  hereafter  shown,  that  this  is  to  be  reduced  by 
mixing  with  loam  or  other  matter,  this   quantity,  even  if 
applied  to  one  acre,  will  probably  produce  very  good  effects. 
It  has  repeatedly  been  proved  for  other  purposes,  that  a  cord 
of  fresh  dug  peat  neutralizes  100  Ibs.  of  soda  ash,  or  400  Ibs. 
to  a  dry  cord.     Further,  dry  peat,  by  boiling  with,  neutral- 
izes 12|-  per  cent,  of  its  weight  of  potash,  and  in  actual  prac- 
tice, alkali  to  the  amount  of  6  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the 
geiue,  in  pond  mud,  has   been   used.     It  would  therefore  ap- 
pear to  be  safe  to  use  the  theoretical  proportion. 

268.  But  the  nitrogen  in  cow-dung  does  not  all  tell.     It  is 
impossible  but  that  some  portion  of  the  elements  of  ammo- 
nia enter  into  other  combinations,  and  part  also  escapes  as 
gas.     Besides,  it  is  not  all  brought  at  once  into  action,  and 
hence  a  less  portion  of  alkali  than  above  indicated  may  be 
used.     It  is  probable  that  not  a  third  of  the  ammonia  acts. 
Let  it  be  taken  at  that  quantity.     Then  the  equivalents  are 
100  Ibs.  fresh  peat,  and  lOf  ounces  soda,  or  1  Ib.  of  potash, 
or  1  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  peat  in  commercial  potash. 

269.  This   proportion  will  allow,  in   round  numbers,  to 
every  cord  of  fresh  dug  peat,  92  Ibs.  pot  or  pearl  ashes,  or 
61  Ibs.  of  soda,  or  16  to  20  bushels  of  common  house  ashes. 

Having  no  guide  here  from  experience  of  the  quantity 
which  may  be  used  per  acre,  yet,  in  order  to  arrive  at  con- 
clusions which  can  be  recommended  safely,  the  alkali  has 
been  calculated  in  the  quantity  of  saltpetre  which  has  been 


214  AKT1FICIAL   MANURE. 

used  with  such  signal  success  by  O.  M.  Whipple,  Esq.,  of 
Lowell.  On  the  principles  which  have  been  developed, 
when  saltpetre  is  used,  the  whole  alkali  is  let  loose  by  the 
action  of  the  growing  plant  The  experience  of  Mr.  Whipple 
is  a  guide  to  the  quantity  of  alkali  which  may  be  safely 
used.  He  has  used  from  60  to  150  Ibs.  saltpetre  per  acre. 
The  real  alkali  in  saltpetre  may  be  called  £  of  its  weight ;  or 
the  real  alkali  used  has  been  from  25  to  75  Ibs.  =  865  Ibs. 
and  109j  Ibs.  pure  carbonate,  6r,  in  round  numbers,  an  aver- 
age of  commercial  1st  and  2d  quality,  of  49  to  147  Ibs.  per 
acre,  giving  an  average  of  99  Ibs.,  nearly,  which  is  nearly  1 
per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  a  cord  of  green  peat,  which  agrees 
with  the  estimate  (268).  If,  then,  this  is  mixed  with  the 
usual  proportion  of  geine,  which  the  dung  used  contains, 
equally  good  effects  per  acre  ought  to  be  produced.  . 

270.  There  are  other  practical  facts  which  may  help  to  a 
solution  of  the  question,  How  much  alkali  is  to  be  added  to 
a  cord  of  peat  1  According  to  the  experience  of  the  late 
Mr.  Phinney,  of  Lexington,  an  authority  which  may  not  be 
questioned,  a  cord  of  green  dung  converts  twice  its  bulk  of 
peat  into  a  manure,  of  equal  value  to  itself — that  is,  a  cord 
of  clear  stable-dung,  composted  with  two  of  peat,  forms  a 
manure  of  equal  value  to  three  cords  of  green  dung.  In- 
deed, the  permanent  effects  of  this  compost,  according  to  Mr. 
Phinney,  exceed  those  of  stable-dung.  Equal  bulks  are  here 
about  equal  weights.  On  these  facts,  2  Ibs.  of  ammonia  in 
100  of  cow-dung,  should  convert  200  Ibs.  of  fresh  dug  peat 
into  good  cow-dung.  The  equivalents  of  these,  as  has  been 
shown  (265),  are  2  Ibs.  of  soda  ash,  or  3  Ibs.  of  potash. 
Allowing  the  gaseous  ammonia  to  be  here  retained  by  the 
peat,  and  consequently  all  effective,  it  is  divided  equally 
among  the  300  Ibs.  of  dung  and  peat,  in  proportion  of  10§ 
oz.  of  soda  ash  or  1  Ib.  of  potash  to  100  Ibs.  of  fresh  peat. 


ARTIFICIAL    MANURE.  216 

Now  this  calculation,  deduced  from  actual  experiment,  con- 
firms the  theoretical  proportions  (268),  supposing  only  $  of 
the  nitrogen  to  act,  though  that  was  made  before  the  author 
met  with  the  statement  of  the  great  practical  farmer. 

271.  There  is  a  coincidence  here  of  proportions,  which 
makes  it  quite  certain  that  the  quantity  recommended  (269) 
is  a  perfectly  safe  basis  for  agricultural  use.  By  theory  the 
proportions  are,  1  cord  peat,  61  Ibs.  soda  ash,  92  Ibs.  pot- 
ash. As  deduced  from  the  compost  of  dung  and  peat,  61 
Ibs.  soda  ash,  92  Ibs.  potash.  This  proportion  gives  each 
cord  of  peat  a  value  equal  to  that  of  cow-dung.  If  ^  only 
of  the  nitrogen  of  dung  acts,  the  alkali  and  peat  may  be 
composted,  as  that  is,  with  loam,  or  still  better,  mixed  up  at 
once  with  its  proportion  of  peat.  If  this  is  done,  then  the 
result  will  be,  in  round  numbers,  1  cord  of  fresh  dug  peat, 
20  Ibs.  of  soda  ash,  30  Ibs.  potash,  5  to  7  bushels  house 
ashes.  In  March,  1849,  the  author,  in  a  letter  addressed  to 
the  commissioner  for  the  agricultural  survey  of  Massachu- 
setts, threw  out  the  following  hint,  which  was  published  in 
the  second  report  of  Mr.  Col  man  : 

"  Take  100  Ibs.  of  peat  as  sold,  or  the  fine  part  from  the 
bottom- of  a  peat  stack  ;  at  any  rate,  bruise  the  peat  fine,  put 
it  into  a  potash  kettle,  and  2£  Ibs.  of  white  ash,  and  130  gal- 
lons of  water  ;  boil  for  a  few  hours ;  let  it  settle,  dip  off  the 
clear  for  use,  add  100  Ibs.  more  of  peat,  2|  Ibs.  white  ash, 
fill  up  with  water,  as  much  as  you  have  dipped  off,  boil 
again,  settle  and  dip  off.  This  may  be  repeated  five  times. 
How  much  oftener  I  know  not ;  probably  as  long  as  the 
vegetable  part  of  peat  remains.  The  clear  liquor  is  an  alka- 
line solution  of  geine.  The  three  first  boilings  contain 
geine,  alumine,  iron,  magnesia,  and  sulphate  or  phosphate  of 
alkali.  The  dark  colored  solution  contains  about  half  an 
ounce  per  gallon  of  vegetable  matter. 


216  ARTIFICIAL   MANURE. 

"  It  is  to  be  applied  by  watering  grass  lands.     The    Jregs 
may  be  mixed  up  with  the  manure,  or  spread  as  a  top-dress- 
ing, or  put  in  the  hill.     Experience  will  teach;  I  only  sug- 
gest." 

The  principle  which  should  guide  the  farmer  in  the  making 
of  artificial  manure  has  now  been  considered.     The  author 
of  these  pages  is  not  a  practical  farmer  ;  agriculture  is  not 
his  pursuit,  and  he  has  studied  its  chemistry  only  as  a  recrea- 
tion from  the  daily  duties  of  life.     He  has  thrown  out  sug- 
gestions, the  result  of  researches  undertaken  with  reference 
to  a  totally  different  object,  and  these  suggestions  have  been 
acted  upon,  by  practical  men,  whose  results  confirm  his  pre- 
vious anticipations.     He  has  no  theory  on  this  subject  to 
maintain  ;  his  opinions  must  stand  or  fall  by  practice,  speak 
for  themselves.     Yet,  he  is  not  altogether  indifferent  to  the 
practical   results  which  may  follow  his  suggestions,  and  he 
would  consider  that  he  had  inflicted  a  serious  injury  on  agri- 
culture, by  the  publication  of  erroneous  opinions.     When  a 
man's  character  is  to  be  established  in  a  court  of  evidence, 
what  is  the  good  old  English  rule?     To  call  upon  the   by- 
standers, the  country  present,  taken  indiscriminately  from 
all  who  may  have  known  the  person.     Do  not  summon  per- 
sons whose  interest  may  throw  a  shadow  of  suspicion  on  the 
testimony  of  the  witness.     And  so  here;  let  it  be  proved, 
if  it  can  be,  whether  the  principles  here  advanced  are  of 
practical  value,  by  calling  upon  the  stand  those  gentlemen 
who  have  tested  the  author's  opinions,  and  of  some  of  whoso 
operations  and  results  he  was  ignorant,  till  he  met  with  them 
in  the  agricultural  publications  of  the  day,  or  in  accidental 
conversation  ;  others  have  been  requested  to  state  by  letter 
their  results,  after  these  pages  were  prepared  for  the  press. 
The  evidence  on  this  point  is  contained  in  the  Appendix  to 
this  volume. 


ARTIFICIAL   MANURE.  217 

272.  Attention  might  here  be  called  to  the  extensive  use 
of  peat,  composted  with  lime  and  animal  manure ;  but  it 
will  be  observed  that  it  is  wished  to  direct  the  thoughts  at 
this  time  to  a  compost  of  artificial  manure,  without  lime  or 
animal  manure.  The  author  does  not  go  for  lime,  but  for 
soluble  alkali.  Carbonate  of  lime  alone  is  not  expected  to 
produce  immediate  results,  and  seldom  has  produced,  or 
can  be  expected  to  produce  visible  effects  in  the  first  year  of 
its  application.  The  why  and  the  wherefore  of  this  has  been 
already  explained,  and  it  is  merely  adverted  to  now  to 
guard  against  any  inference  favorable  to  the  action  of  lime 
being  deduced  from  the  following  facts.  Mr.  George  Rob- 
bins,  of  Watertown,  an  extensive  manufacturer  of  soap  and 
candles,  and  of  starch,  employs  the  refuse  of  these  trades  in 
enriching  and  gladdening  his  land.  It  is  believed  his  crops 
will  compare  with  any  of  the  best  cultivators  around  him. 
He  has  not  used  for  four  years  a  spoonful  of  manure  made 
by  any  animal,  walking  either  on  two  legs  or  on  four.  He 
keeps  a  large  number  of  horses  and  hoc;s,  and  several  cows, 
and  uses  not  a  shovelful  of  their  manure,  but  selling  that, 
uses  peat  and  swamp  muck  mixed  with  his  spent  barilla 
ashes.  The  proportions  are,  one  part  of  spent  ashes  to  three 
of  peat,  dug  up  in  the  fall,  mixed  in  the  spring.  After 
shovelling  two  or  three  times,  it  is  spread  and  ploughed  in. 
The  effect  is  immediate,  and  so  far,  lasting.  The  effects  of 
this  spent  ashes  alone  on  sandy  loam  are  excellent ;  it  makes 
the  whole  quite  "salvey." 

273.  The  composition  of  spent  ashes  has  already  been 
alluded  to ;  a  certain  portion  is  carbonate  of  lime ;  it  is 
well  known,  that  as  such,  it  would  produce  no  better  effects 
than  so  much  chalk.  .  A  large  part  of  silicate  of  soda  exists 
in  the  spent  ashes.  This  is  decomposed  by  the  carbonic 
acid  of  the  air,  the  alkali  then  acts  on  geine,  but  this  action  is 
10 


218  ARTIFICIAL   MANURE. 

greatly  assisted  by  the  carbonate  of  lime.  It  is  perhaps  the 
most  powerful  agent  in  the  decomposition  of  the  silicate  of 
soda.  Here  then  the  action  of  carbonates  on  silicates  tells. 
And  it  may  be  worth  while  to  be  reminded  here,  that  this 
action  was  explained  in  detail,  in  order  that  it  might  be  un- 
derstood how  spent  ashes  could  act  so  rapidly  on  swamp 
muck. 

274.  Alkalies  and  peat,  or  swamp  muck,  are  within  the 
command  of  almost  every  farmer.  Lime  is  not  within 
reach,  and  besides,  requires  no  small  skill  in  its  management. 
In  the  preparation  of  manure,  price  is  everything.  Let  the 
cost  be  estimated  per  cord,  of  artificial  manure,  prepared  in 
the  proportions  stated  (270).  Peat  or  muck  may  be  called 
worth  fifty  cents  per  cord,  and  the  labor  of  digging,  say  one 
dollar, 

$1.50 

92  Ibs.  potash,  6  cts.          $5.52  } 
or,  61  Ibs.  soda  ash,  or  |  gy 

M-hite  ash,  4  cts.  2.44  ' 

or  24  bush,  ashes,  12£  cts.,  3.00  j 


3)10.96  $5.  If 


3.G5 

Were  they  really  good  hard  wood  ashes,  about  16  bushes 
would  be  sufficient,  but  an  excess  here  is  allowed,  to  com- 
pensate for  variation  in  quality.  This  may  appear  a  very 
high  price,  but  it  is  to  be  remembered,  that  its  value  is  to  b« 
compared  with  that  of  a  cord  of  clear  cow-dung.  What  5c 
the  value  of  cow-dung  ?  It  appears  from  the  barn  accouni 
of  the  Merrimack  Manufacturing  Company,  that  for  9^> 
years,  ending  October,  1838,  a  bushel  of  clear  cow-dung  cost- 
cents.  During  the  same  time  dung  of  inferior  qualitj 


ARTIFICIAL   MANURE.  219 

was  delivered  at  the  Print-works,  by  the  neighboring  farm- 
ers at  20  cents  per  bushel.  Clear  dung  is  delivered  at  the 
Print-works  in  Dover  at  121  cents  per  bushel,  and  at  seve- 
ral of  the  Print-works  in  Rhode  Island,  at  16  cents  per 
bushel,  giving  an  average  of  17.45  cents  per  bushel,  and 
as  a  cord  contains,  in  round  numbers,  100  bushels,  its 
price  is  $17.45 

Deduct  from  this  the  price  of  an  artificial  cord,  5.15 


$12.30 

It  is  hence  evident  that  an  artificial  cord  is  only  about  one- 
third  of  the  price  of  a  natural  cord,  and  if  the  last  may  be 
mixed  with  two  parts  of  loam  or  swamp  muck,  so  may  the 
first,  which  will  reduce  the  price  of  a  cord  of  artificial 
manure,  to  $2.71.  Now  this  is  equal,  according  to  all  expe- 
rience, cord  for  cord,  to  stable  manure ;  the  value  of  that 
may  be  estimated  at  $5,  so  that  an  artificial  cord  costs  only 
about  one-half.  The  best  plan  for  preparing  the  artificial 
manure  is  to  dig  the  peat  or  swamp  muck  in  the  fall ;  in  the 
spring  of  the  year  let  this  be  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  30 
Ibs.  of  potash,  or  20  Ibs.  of  soda  ash,  or  8  bushels  of  com. 
mon  house  ashes,  to  every  cord  of  fresh  dug  peat,  estimating 
this  by  the  pit  dug  out,  and  allowing  nothing  in  the  spring 
for  shrinking.  If  ashes  are  used,  they  may  be  mixed  in  at 
once  with  the  muck,  but  if  soda  ash  or  potashes  are  used, 
they  must  be  dissolved  in  water,  and  the  pile  evenly  wet 
with  the  solution.  The  pile  is  then  to  be  well  shovelled 
over,  and  used  as  is  other  manure.  But  it  has  been  found 
by  experience,  that  the  peat  may  be  dug  in  the  spring,  im- 
mediately mixed  with  the  alkali,  and  used  forthwith.  If 
spent  ashes  are  used  to  prepare  this  muck,  add  one  cord  of 
spent  ashes  to  three  cords  of  peat  or  swamp  muck. 

275.  But  there  are  still  other  forms  of  cheap  alkali  from 


220  ARTIFICIAL   MANURE. 

salt  arid  lime,  which  may  be  recommended,  though  this  may 
appear  inconsistent  with  what  has  been  advanced  respecting 
lim<»,  but  in  this  case  the  lime  is  converted  into  a  perfectly 
soluble  salt.  The  soda  is  eliminated  caustic,  acts  on  the 
geine,  renders  it  soluble.  During  the  exposure  to  the  vol- 
umes of  carbonic  acid  evolved  from  the  peat,  the  caustic 
soda  becomes  carbonated.  This  carbonate  of  soda  immedi- 
ately decomposes  the  soluble  salt  of  lime,  and  an  insoluble 
salt  of  lime  with  a  soluble  salt  of  soda  i-s  the  result.  The 
effects  of  these  various  actions,  are,  first,  the  geine  is  made 
soluble,  ammonia  evolved,  which  is  converted  into  a  nitrate, 
carbonate  of  lime  produced,  which  acts  as  that  does  in  spent 
ashes,  and  a  soluble  salt  of  soda  or  common  salt  remains  in 
the  mass,  producing  still  farther  good  effects,  when  its  alkali 
is  let  loose  by  the  action  of  growing  plants.  Here  are 
rounds  of  changes  taking  place,  which  though  the  farmer 
may  not  readily  understand,  he  may  easily  produce,  with 
lime  and  common  salt.  It  may  be  stated,  in  farther  expla- 
nation of  these  changes,  that  common  salt  is  a  compound  of 
soda  and  muriatic  acid,  or  muriate  of  soda,  using  here  the 
old  language  of  chemistry,  which  is  more  intelligible  to  the 
farmer,  though  not  philosophically  correct.  By  mixing 
quicklime  with  common  salt,  its  soda  is  let  loose,  the  acid 
combines  with  the  lime,  forming  a  soluble  salt  of  lime,  and 
as  long  as  the  soda  remains  caustic  it  has  no  effect  on  the 
muriate  of  lime,  but  as  soon  as  the  soda  becomes  mild  or 
carbonated,  decomposition  of  the  muriate  of  lime  is  pro- 
duced, and  the  common  salt  regenerated.  Commencing 
then  with  quicklime  and  salt,  wo  pass  on  to  a  soluble  salt  of 
lime  and  caustic  soda,  and  from  that,  to  mild  soda,  and  to 
carbonate  of  lime  and  the  original  common  salt ;  and  these 
in  decaying  soil  are  mutually  decomposed,  and  reform  car- 
bonate of  soda. 


ARTIFICIAL   MANURE.  221 

276.  If  these  various  changes  take  place  in  the  midst  of 
peat,  or  geine,  it  is  evident  that  the  caustic  soda  acts  upon 
the  geine,  and  also  evolves  ammonia  from  that  substance ; 
secondly,  that  the  muriate  of  lime  in  its  finely  soluble  state 
insinuates  itself  among  all  the  particles  of  the  geine,  that  the 
soda  also  is  equally  diffused,  and  that  when  the  soda  becomes 
carbonated,  it  produces  an  almost  impalpable  carbonate  of 
lime  throughout  the  whole  mass,  which,  by  its  equal  diffu- 
sion through  the  soil  with  the  geine,  acts  upon  the  silicates, 
as  has  been  heretofore  explained.  In  order  to  produce  these 
effects,  take 

1  bushel  of  salt, 
1  cask  of  lime. 

Slack  the  lime  with  the  brine,  made  by  dissolving  the  salt  in 
water  sufficient  to  make  a  stiff  paste  with  the. lime,  which 
will  be  riot  quite  sufficient  to  dissolve  all  the  salt.  Mix  all 
the  materials  then  well  together,  and  let  them  remain 
together  in  a  heap  for  10  days,  and  then  be  well  mixed  with 
three  cords  of  peat ;  shovel  well  over  for  about  6  weeks, 
and  it  will  be  fit  for  use.  Here,  then,  are  produced  3  cords 
of  manure,  for  about  the  cost  of  $2.10  per  cord. 

Salt $0.60 

Lime, 1.60 

Peat, 4.50 

3)$6.30($2.10 

From  experiments  made  in  a  small  way,  it  is  believed 
that  this  will  be  found  an  effectual  manure ;  the  author  sug- 
gests it,  in  the  hope  that  it  may  lead  to  cautious  experiment. 

Lime  and  salt  have  been  also  commended  by  other 
writers.  Sir  John  Sinclair,  in  his  "  Scotch  Husbandry," 
says  that  sea  water  evaporated  to  a  saturated  solution,  that 


222  ARTIFICIAL   MANURE. 

is,  till  the  salts  fall,  may  be  used  to  slack  lime.  32  bushels 
thus  slacked,  mixed  with  40  loads  of  peat,  and  spread  on 
one  acre  of  poorest  fallow,  were  equal  to  any  manure. 

Mr.  Mitchell,  a  surgeon  in  Ayr,  recommends  3000  gallons 
sea  water  to  be  evaporated  to  600  gallons,  and  this  is  to  be 
used  to  slack  64  bushels  of  lime.  This  may  be  applied  to 
two  acres. 

Salt  water  peat  mixed  with  lime,  has  been  very  success- 
fully used  in  some  places  in  England.  The  peat  being  satu- 
rated with  sea-water  by  its  natural  position,  is  dug  out,  par- 
tially dried,  and  mixed  with  about  4  its  bulk  of  slacked 
lime.  It  soon  heats,  ferments  strongly,  and  when  used  soon 
after  as  manure,  produces  excellent  effects.  Doubless,  all 
peat  saturated  with  strong  brine,  and  then  mixed  with  lime, 
would  be  equally  as  effective  as  submarine  turf. 

But  there  is  still  another  form  in  which  this  artificial 
manure  may  be  prepared,  that  is  by  the  addition  of  ammo- 
nia. Take 

3  c«rds  of  peat, 
61  Ibs.  sal-ammoniac, 
^  cask,  or  about  61  Ibs.  lime. 

Slack  the  lime,  dissolve  the  sal-ammoniac,  and  wet  the  pent 
well  with  the  solution  through  every  part.  Then  shovel 
over,  mixing  in  the  lime  accurately.  We  have  here,  then,  3 
cords  of  manure,  at  a  price  as  follows  : 

3  cords  peat, $4.50 

61  Ibs.  sal-ammoniac,  at  la.,  .         .         .     10.17 
61  Ibs.  lime, 0.27 


3)$14.94($4.98 

It  will  be  observed  that  three  cords  are  used  in  these  cal- 
culations, because  the  quantity  of  salts  used  is  equivalent  to 


ARTIFICIAL    MANURE.  223 

the  ammonia  in  a  cord  of  Jung,  and  that  is  supposed  to  bo 
composted  with  2  cords  of  loam,  or  meadow  mud. 
Whether  the  estimates  are  correct,  each  one  will  determine 
by  the  value  he  may  place  on  his  peat  and  manure,  and  will 
apply  his  own  estimate.  When  a  cord  of  stable  or  barn- 
yard manure  is  usually  estimated  worth  $4,  the  price  of 
a  cord  of  clear  pure  cow- dung  will  not  be  thought  high  at 
$17.  In  fact,  it  probably,  when  mixed  with  the  usual  pro- 
portion of  litter,  straw,  stalks,  and  the  usual  loss  by  waste 
of  its  value,  would  become  worth  only  about  $5.  But  these 
questions  do  not  affect  the  principle — that  from  alkali  and 
peat,  as  cheap  a  manure  may  be  prepared,  and  as  good,  as 
from  stable-dung  ;  for  let  that  be  called  $5.00 
then  adding  2  cords  of  peat,  3.00 

3)  $8.00 

$2.66  per  cord. 

277.  There  are  other  sources  of  alkali,  for  converting  peat 
into  soluble  manure.     Of  these  the  chief  is  animal  matter. 
Here  we  have   ammonia  produced.     Jt  has  been  actually 
proved  by  experiment,  that  a  dead   horse  can  convert  20 
tons  of  peat  into  a  valuable  manure,  richer  and  more  lasting 
than  stable  dung ;  "  a  barrel  of  alewives  is  equal  to  a  wagon 
load  of  peat."     The  next  great  and  prolific  source  of  ammo- 
nia is  the  urine.     The  urine  of  one  cow  for  a  winter,  mixed 
up  as  it  is  daily  collected  with  peat,  was  sufficient  to  manure 
i  an  acre  of  land  with  20  loads  of  manure  of  the  be^t  qual- 
ity, while  her  solid   evacuations,   and   litter,  for  the  same 
period,  afforded  only  17  loads,  whose  value  was  only  about 
one-half  that  of  the  former. 

278.  It  need  only  be  added  in  confirmation  of  all  that  has 
be^n  advanced,  that  those  who  have  had  the  prudence  to  fill 


22  i  ARTIFICIAL   MANURE. 

their  yaras  and  hog-pens  with  meadow  mud,  which  has  thus 
become  saturated  with  ammonia,  have  in  nowise  lost  their 
reward.  If  they  have  been  satisfied  with  their  practice,  per- 
haps they  will  be  no  less  firm  in  their  belief  of  success,  when 
science  offers  them  a  reason  for  the  faith  that  is  in  them. 

Peat  or  turf  has  begun  to  excite  attention  in  France,  as  a 
manure  in  itself,  and  not  simply  as  a  vehicle  for  supplying 
ammouiacal  salts  (206).  Soubeiran,  in  his  prize  essay  on 
manures,  &c.,  in  1847,  says,  that  from  his  own  experiments 
he  can  find  no  difference  between  the  humus  of  mould  and 
turf;  he  asserts  that  it  is  equally  fit  for  encouraging  vegeta- 
tion, and  ''  If  we  consider  the  service  which  humus  spread  on 
laud  renders  to  vegetation,  w.e  must  regret  that  turf,  which  is 
so  abundant  in  certain  localities,  should  not  be  isore  fre- 
quently employed  as  an  adjunct  toother  manures.  Suitably 
modified  by  air  and  alkalies,  it  would  incontestibly  render 
important  services  to  agriculture."  Fresh  turf  when  mixed 
with  5-  its  weight  of  dried  flesh,  Soubeiran  found  was  slowly 
decomposed,  forming  with  turf  a  compound  similar  to  fer- 
menting dung. 

Peat  or  turf  has  been  used  in  France  as  a  convenient  sub- 
stance when  in  dry  powder,  to  absorb  solutions  of  ammonia- 
cal  salts,  thereby  reducing  that  to  a  state  approaching  pou- 
drette.  For  this  purpose'  M.  Jacquemart,  in  1843,  compared 
such  prepared  turf  powder  with  poudrette,  using  such  quan  • 
tity  that  each  should  represent  the  same  amount  of  nitrogen, 
or  its  equivalent  ammoniacal  salts.  The  poudrette  contained 
in  3  bushels,  or  132  Ibs.,  nitrogen  equivalent  to  9  5  Ibs.  sal 
phatc  of  ammonia  crystals.  Of  the  nitrogen,  53  per  cent, 
existed  as  ready  formed  carbonate  of  ammonia,  and  47  per 
cent,  as  part  of  the  organic  matter  of  the  night-soil. 

This  poudrette,  used  at  the  rate  of  25  bushels  per  acre, 
represented  therefore  82  Ibs.  of  crystals  of  sulphate  of  am- 


ARTIFICIAL   MANURE.  225 

monia  ;  solutions  of  carbonate  and  bi-carbonate  of  ammo- 
nia, equivalent  each  to  82  Ibs.  of  crystals  of  sulphate,  were 
absorbed  to  dry  ness  by  peat  powder.  These  several 
manures  were  sowed  with  oats  and  covered  in,  under  similar 
circumstances,  of  soil,  time,  and  exposure.  The  yield  was  as 
follows — poudrette  representing  100  : 

Grain.      The  straw  being  100,  the 
grain  is  to  the  straw  as 

No.  1.  Poudrette,    .    .     .  100.  65. 

"    2.  Carbonate  of  am.,  .  94.  69. 

"   3.  Bicarb,  of  am.,  .     .  95.  77. 

"   4.  No  manure,  ...  74  "62. 

The  next  year  wheat  was  sown,  and  the  equivalent  of 
sulphate  of  ammonia  increased  to  103  Ibs.  A  mixture  of 
No.  1  and  2  in  equal  portions  gave  results  equal  to  pou- 
drette. 

From  these  results,  it  is  believed  that  a  manure  may  be 
prepared  with  the  ammoniacal  liquor  of  gas  works  and  peat, 
in  a  portable  form,  which  may  be  confidently  recommended 
to  the  farmer  and  gardener. 

Gas  liquor,  alone,  applied  by  the  water-cart,  at  the  rate  of 
400  gallons  per  acre,  and  the  land  a  few  days  after  sowed 
with  barley,  has  given  results  equal  to  stable  manure. 
Much  of  this  liquor  is  allowed  to  run  to  waste.  With  the 
hope  that  it  may  be  saved  for  the  mutual  benefit  of  agricul- 
ture and  the  gas  manufacturer,  the  following  suggestions  are 
submitted  to  their  consideration. 

From  experiments  which  were  tried  by  Jacquemart,  with 
those  above  detailed,  it  appeared  that  sulphate  of  ammonia 
and  peat  powder  produced  very  little  effect.  The  conversion 
into  that  salt  is  to  be  avoided  if  it  is  intended  to  be  used  as 
will  be  here  recommended.  Sulphate  of  ammonia,  mixed 
with  other  manures,  is  known  by  repeated  experiments  to 
10* 


2261  ARTIFICIAL   MANURE. 

produce  good  results,  but  for  the  purpose  of  preparing  "  peat 
poudrette"  at  the  gas  works,  carbonate  of  ammonia  is  pre- 
ferable. If  sulphate  of  ammonia  is  used,  then  about  2  oz.  of 
chalk  or  whiting  in  powder  should  be  added  to  each  gallon 
of  gas  liquor,  before  mixing,  as  hereafter  described.  What- 
ever portion  of  ammonia  is  converted  to  sulphate,  an  equiv- 
alent of  chalk  powder  must  be  used.  Carbonate  of  ammo- 
nia and  sulphate  of  lime  result  by  slow  decomposition.  The 
gas  liquor  is  variable  in  quality  ;  but  that  from  Pictou  coal 
contains  about  5  per  cent,  of  ammonia.  This  is  equal  to 
about  14J  Ibs.  sulphate  of  ammonia  crystals,  per  100  gal- 
lons, or  2^  oz.  per  gallon  ;  hence,  at  the  rate  of  82  Ibs.  per 
acre,  600  gallons  of  gas  liquor  should  be  used.  But  from 
later  trials  than  those  cited  above,  it  has  been  proved  that 
much  less  than  this  quantity  is  an  effectual  manure.  The 
transportation  of  the  liquor  in  any  quantity  will  not  pay  the 
expenses.  How  then  may  the  farmer  use  gas  liquor '?  It  is 
recommended  to  dry  peat,  and  then  powder  it.  It  may  be 
dried  by  the  spare  heat  from  the  gas  retorts.  The  tempera- 
ture should  not  exceed  240°  F.  At  300°  it  will  be  apt  to 
tike  fire.  To  one  ton  dried  peat,  or  50  bushels,  add  150 
gallons  gas  liquor. 

Peat,  as  has  been  shown  (259),  contains  about  15  per 
cent,  solid  matter.  At  the  average  weight  of  a  cord,  fresh 
dug,  the  amount  of  solid  matter  of  1J  cord,  will  be  about 
2137  Ibs.,  or  one  ton ;  this  when  dried  as  above,  will  absorb 
two-thirds  its  weight,  or  150  gallons  gas  liquor,  without 
becoming  pasty;  it  forms  a  moist,  powder  only  like  damp 
sand.  If  it  is  found  that  it  becomes  too  wet  to  work  up 
moist,  this  is  caused  by  imperfectly  roasted  peat,  and  then 
as  proposed  (209)  the  gas  liquor  must  be  added  at  intervals, 
drying  between  in  open  air.  The  whole  will  weigh  about 
3400  Ibs.  and  the  bulk  will  equal  100  bushels.  At  5  per 


ARTIFICIAL    MANURE.  227 

cent,  of  ammonia,  150  gallons  of  gas  liquor  contain  equal  to 
27  Ibs.  carbonate  of  ammonia  of  commerce,  or  21  Ibs.  sul- 
phate of  ammonia.  Hence  the  compost  above  contains  =  8 
per  cent,  carbonate  of  ammonia,  and  one  bushel  may  be 
considered  equal  to  |  peck  of  good  poudrette.  The  total, 
whatever  may  be  the  bulk,  is  equal  to  1^  cord  of  fresh  peat 
mixed  with  27  Ibs.  of  soda  ash,  or  about  nearly  in  the  pro- 
portions recommended  (271)  to  make  a  cord  equal  to  a 
cord  of  stable  manure. 

If,  by  repeated  drying  under  sheds  in  the  open  air,  50 
bushels  of  roasted  peat  are  made  to  absorb  600  gallons  gas 
liquor,  it  produces  75  bushels  gas  poudrette,  whose  ammonia 
equals  that  in  25  bushels  of  the  best  poudrette  from  night- 
soil,  and,  used  by  itself,  3  for  1  of  that  produces  -f-/^  of  its 
effects,  or,  when  mixed  f  to  ^  of  poudrette,  produces  equal 
effects  to  one  of  the  night-soil  article.  It  may  not  be  ques- 
tioned that  gas  poudrette  may  be  cheaply  prepared  in  a  form 
so  concentrated  that  bushel  for  bushel  its  ammonia  may 
equal  that  of  poudrette ;  and  when  mixed  with  a  little  stable- 
dung,  to  set  up  an  active  fermentation,  it  may  be  expected 
to  act  equally  well  with  the  best  commercial  poudrette. 

For  this  purpose  the  peat  should  be  dried  at  the  lowest 
possible  temperature  which  will  expel  the  moisture.  It  must 
not  be  charred.  The  ammonia  should  all  be  in  the  state  of 
sulphate.  The  moistened  peat  powder  may  then  be  dried, 
and  thus  reduced  to  nearly  its  original  bulk,  without  danger 
of  losing  ammonia.  When  dry,  to  every  100  parts  of  crys- 
tals of  sulphate-ammonia  used,  add  65  Ibs.  of  powdered 
chalk.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  will  gradually  become  equal 
to  about  100  Ibs.  of  dry  plaster  of  Paris,  giving  off  ammonia 
during  all  this  time.  Charring  stops  all  further  action  of 
the  elements  of  peat.  In  Jacquemart's  experiments,  prob- 
ably the  whole  effect  \s  due  to  the  ammonia  carbonate 


228  ARTIFICIAL   MANURE. 

No  ammoniacal  salt,  according  to  Kuhlmann,  acts  till  reduced 
to  that  state.  Fermentation  lias  such  effect  Hence,  car- 
bonate of  ammonia,  mixed  with  charcoal  powder,  had  the 
same  good  effects  as  when  mixed  with  over-dried  peat. 
With  this  view  the  cinders  and  sparks  collected  by  locomo- 
tive engines  may  be  mixed  into  a  dry  powder  with  gas  liquor. 
So  may  be  used  also  charred  saw-dust,  and  spent  tan.  But, 
it  will  be  observed  that,  by  the  mode  recommended  in  this 
work,  the  active  power  of  peat  is  intended  to  be  preserved. 
It  differs  from  the  "  peat  charcoal"  movement  of  the  day  in 
this  point.  That  makes  vault  poudrette  ;  this,  gas  poudrette. 

Composts  may  be  formed  without  peat  or  stable-manure. 
That  substance  being  omitted,  speedy  decay  and  rapid  fer- 
mentation may  be  induced  in  all  straws,  green  twigs,  weeds, 
and  green  vegetable  matter  of  all  kinds,  by  piling  them  up, 
moistening  the  heap  with  a  solution  of  organic  matter  in  the 
state  of  decay,  and  adding  various  salt*.  A  rich  and  valu- 
able manure  may  be  thus  speedily  prepared,  if  certain  pre- 
cautions are  observed  to  retain  the  volatile  ammonia,  the 
product  of  fermentation  (100)  by  converting  it  into  fixed 
salts. 

The  rapid  decay  in  all  such  composts  depends  upon  the 
same  principle  as  the  fermentation  of  dough,  viz.,  the  addi- 
tion of  some  body,  as  yeast,  actually  undergoing  chemical 
change.  This  change  communicates  motion  to  the  particles 
of  the  whole  mass  which  thus  act  by  induced  fermentation. 

A  process  of  making  manure  on  this  principle  was  origi- 
nally proposed  by  Jauflfret,  in  France.  Variously  modified, 
it  has  been  used  both  there  and  in  other  countries  with  signal 
success.  Manure  made  by  his  original  recipe  costs  more 
than  stable-dung,  but  the  following,  based  on  the  principle 
above  stated,  forms  an  economic  manure.  The  quantity  of 
the  materials  are  intended  for  manuring  one  acre : 


ARTIFICIAL   MANURE.  229 

3  tons  of  green  straw,  ferns,  bean-stalks,  pea-vines,  potato- 
tops,  weeds,  leaves,  &c., 
90  Ibs.  of  ground  plaster, 

2  "    of  common  salt, 

3  "   of  saltpetre, 

2|-  bushels  of  house  ashes. 

2|       "       of  charcoal  powder, 

5         "       of  night-soil. 

Make  the  pile  of  vegetable  matter  near  a  puddle  of  stag- 
nant water,  if  possible;  if  this  is  not  convenient,  sink  a  pit 
by  the  edge  of  the  pile,  fill  it  with  common  water,  throw 
into  it  the  night-soil,  mix  it  well  by  stirring,  add  the  ashes, 
then  the  charcoal,  lastly  the  salts. 

With  a  bucket  furnished  with  a  long-pole  handle,  like  a 
tanner's  scoop,  water  the  pile  several  times  daily  with  the 
above  mixture,  taking  care  that  the  drainage  runs  into  the 
pit,  to  be  again  returned  upon  the  pile.  In  two  or  three 
weeks  in  warm  weather  the  heap  is  sufficiently  converted  for 
use. 

The  yeast,  as  it  may  be  termed  in  this  process,  is  the 
night-soil,  and  the  putrescent  matter  in  the  stagnant  water. 

Referring  now  to  (100),  it  will  be  at  once  seen  here  is  a 
ready  and  cheap  mode  of  producing  geine,  ammonia,  nitrates, 
which,  with  the  salts  already  added,  form  a  manure  whose 
efficacy  and  economy  alike  recommend  its  use  to  those  who 
have  not  peat  or  swamp-muck  at  command. 

There  is  a  choice,  if  it  may  be  exercised,  in  the  kind  of 
straw  best  for  such  a  compost  as  is  above  recommended. 
The  straw  of  beans,  peas,  and  all  pod  or  leguminous  plants, 
"s  richer  in  nitrogen  than  straws  of  grain,  or  cereal  plants. 
Pod-plant  straw  contains  more  vegetable  matter,  and  a 
greater  quantity  of  potash  salts,  than  grain  straw;  the  first 


230  IRRIGATION. 

form  tnorc  geine,  more  ammouia  by  putrefaction,  and  are 
therefore  preferable  for  composts.  Oat  straw  contains  more 
potash,  and  buckwheat  straw  more  magnesia  than  other 
straws. 

The  following  table  exhibits  straws  as  arranged  according 
to  their  practical  compost  value,  by  Sprengel,  and  also  their 
proportion  per  cent,  of  organic  matter,  salts  and  nitrogen  ; 
the  last  as  determined  by  Payen  and  Boussingault : 

Straw  Organic  milter.        Salts.  Nitrogen. 

1.  Buckwheat,  96.797  3.203 

2.  Bean,  96.879  3.121 

3.  Millet,  95.145  4.855         0.78 

4.  Pea,  95.029  4.971         1.79 

5.  Barley,  94.759  5.244         0.23 

C.  Wheat,  96.482  3.518  0.49  }£?'£?. 

7.  Rye,  97.207  2.793  0.17 

8.  Corn-stalk,  96.015  3.985  0.28 

9.  Oat,  94.266  5.734 

279.  Having  thus  considered  all  the  classes  of  manure, 
and  shown  the  possibility  of  enriching  barren  fields,  without 
the  aid  of  animals,  other  subjects,  intimately  connected  with 
this  discussion,  may  be  here  introduced. 

These  are,  the  application  of  manure  in  the  form  of  rain, 
snow,  and  by  overflowing  streams,  and  the  humble  attempt 
to  imitate  these  natural  processes,  by  irrigation.  The  effects 
in  these  cases  are  alike.  They  are  due  to  two  distinct  causes, 
first,  to  the  air  of  the  water,  and  secondly,  to  the  salts  and 
other  materials  dissolved  by,  or  suspended  in  the  water. 
First,  before  it  can  be  understood  how  irrigation  acts,  let  it 
be  considered  how  pure  water  acts ;  it  is  not  said  rain  water, 
for  that  acts  in  a  double  way,  both  by  its  purity  and  im- 
purity. The  more  impure,  the  better  manure  is  water. 
The  purer  water  is,  the  less  is  it  fit  for  irrigation. 


IRRIGATION.  231 

280.  Pure  water  acts  only  by  its  air.     All  water  exposed 
to  air,  absorbs  different  proportions  of  its  oxygen  and  nitro- 
gen.    This  is  a  very  slow  process.     It  is  found  that  most, 
natural   waters  give  out,  by  boiling,  from  every  hundred 
cubic  inches  of  water,  3|  cubic  inches  of  air.     This  air  con- 
tains 8  or  9  per  cent,  more  oxygen,  than  an  equal  bulk  of 
common  air.     Water  is  generally  filled  or  saturated  with 
air ;  it  will   take  up  no  more  by  a  month's   exposure.     If 
this  water  is  boiled,  and   again  exposed  to   the  air,  it  will 
absorb,  in  24  hours,  as  follows : — let  there   be  taken  any 
number  of  measures  of  air,  which  are  composed  of  20  of 
oxygen  and  80  of  nitrogen.     If  100  measures  are  absorbed 
by  water,  it  is  in  this  proportion  : 

Of  nitrogen, 46.43 

Of  oxygen, 53.57 

so  that  oxygen  is  three  times  more  absorbable  than  nitrogen. 

281.  If  now,  there  is  expelled  by  boiling,  the  air  from 
pond  or  river  water,  it  is  found  to  contain, 

Nitrogen, 45.29 

Oxygen, 18.G3 

so  that  two-thirds  of  the  oxygen  have  disappeared  ;  this  is 
the  only  fact  which  concerns  the  farmer.  The  oxygen  has 
been  absorbed  by  natural  waters  and  two-thirds  retained. 
What  has  become  of  it  ?  It  has  gone,  it  is  not  said  all  of 
it,  but  in  irrigation  a  large  portion  to  convert  insoluble  into 
soluble  geine.  Irrigation  is  chiefly  employed  on  grass-lands. 
The  green  sward  here  may  not  be  broken  up.  What  if  it 
was1?  What  if  by  ploughing,  it  was  exposed  to  the  action 
of  the  air?  Remember  the  properties  of  geine.  Air  con- 
verts the  insoluble  to  soluble,  by  forming  carbonic  acid,  that 
is,  the  air  <  ombines  with  the  carbon  of  the  geine,  and  forms 


232  IRRIGATION. 

that  gas.  Give  the  geine  this  oxygen,  condensed  in  water: 
wet  it  with  this  concentrated  oxygen,  crowd  it  into  geine,  as 
would  be  done  by  overflowing  a  meadow  with  water.  It 
penetrates  every  crack  and  cranny,  and  every  mole's-eye 
hole;  it  expels  the  carbonic  acid  imprisoned  under  the  sod. 
It  is  doing  the  same  work  upon  the  untouched  green  sward, 
which  would  be  effected  by  ploughing  and  tillage.  The  long 
and  the  short  of  the  whole  action  of  irrigation  with  pure 
limpid  water  is,  that  its  absorbed  oxygen  converts  insoluble 
to  soluble  geine.  Is  this  explanation  which  science  offers, 
confirmed  by  practice?  The  appeal  is  made  to  all  who 
have  attended  either  to  the  theory  or  practice  of  irrigation, 
to  bear  witness  to  its  truth.  Is  it  not  admitted  that  the  run- 
ning waters  are  alone  fit  for  this  purpose  ?  That  after  re- 
maining a  few  days  they  are  abated,  and  a  new  flood  must 
cover  the  land  ?  Is  not  this  necessity  of  renewing  at  short 
periods  the  covering  of  water  which  shows  no  deposit,  a 
proof  that  it  has  given  up  some  invisible  agent  to  fertilize 
the  earth  ?  This  invisible  agent  is  oxygen.  Is  it  not  evi- 
dent from  the  extreme  slowness  with  which  air  is  absorbed 
by  water,  that  if  it  were  not  for  the  running  water,  which 
every  few  days  replaces  that  which  has  acted,  that  the  prac- 
tice of  irrigation  with  pure  water  could  be  never  successful? 

282.  This  is  the  principle,  a  principle  which,  having  been 
wholly  overlooked,  has  led  to  a  waste  of  time  and  money, 
and  has  given  to  irrigation,  in  many  minds,  the  odor,  if  not 
of  a  bad,  at  least  of  a  useless  practice.     Where,  guided  by 
this  light  of  science,  grass  lands  can  be  irrigated,  let  it  be 
done.     If  the  experience  of  the  most  enlightened  agricultur- 
ists in  Europe  is  not  all  deception,  by  simple  irrigation  with 
running  water,  the  farmer  may  cut  two  tons  of  hay  where  ho 
toils  and  sweats  to  rake  off  one. 

283.  But  bv  far  the  most  fertile  sourc«  of  increased  crops? 


IRRIGATION.  23G 

by  irrigation,  is  found  in  the  impurity  of  water ;  the  salts 
and  suspended  matter,  the  slime  and  genial  mud  of  freshets. 
Perhaps  the  effect  due  to  this  cause,  cannot  be  better  illus- 
trated, than  by  a  statement  of  those  substances,  and  their 
amount,  which  fill  the  waters  of  the  Merrimack  ;  a  flood  of 
blessings!  which  rolls  by  those  engaged  in  the  din  and  hot 
haste  of  manufactures,  as  unheeded  as  was  the  earthquake 
which  thundered  and  trembled,  and  rolled  away  under  the 
feet  of  the  fierce  soldiery  in  an  ancient  battle.  In  the  year 
1838,  during  twenty -three  days  of  freshets,  from  May  till 
November,  no  less  than  71874063  Ibs.  of  geine  and  salts 
rolled  by  the  city  of  Lowell,  borne  seaward.  During  the 
five  days  of  the  great  freshet,  from  January  28th,  to  Febru- 
ary 1st,  1839,  no  less  than  35970897  Ibs.  of  the  same  matter 
rolled  by  at  the  rate  of  from  112128  Ibs.  to  20405397  Ibs. 
per  day  ;  each  cubic  foot  of  water  bearing  onwards,  from  1£ 
to  30^  grains.  This  is  only  the  suspended  matter.  That 
which  is  chemically  dissolved  by  the  waters,  the  fine  filmy 
deposit,  which  occurs  in  a  few  days  after  the  coarser  and 
grosser  matters  subside,  and  the  matter  ordinarily  suspended 
in  the  water  of  the  river  added  to  the  above  for  the  year 
1838,  give  a  grand  total  of  839181  tons  of  salts  and  geine, 
which  were  rolled  down  in  the  water  of  the  Merrimack 
river. 

284.  What  is  this  matter  ?  Is  it  of  any  agricultural 
value  ?  The  answer  to  the  first  question  will  answer  both. 
The  dissolved  salts  are  sulphate  and  geate  of  lime,  and  the 
fine  deposit  occurring  after  the  water  has  settled,  is  composed 
of  one-half  geine,  and  the  remainder  of  salts  of  lime  and 
silicates.  The  great  agricultural  value  is  found  in  the  clayey 
deposit,  which  occurs  in  the  first  few  days.  The  coarser 
part,  that  which  collects  about  the  foot  of  rocks,  and  falls, 
and  eddies,  is  composed  as  follows  : 


234  IRRIGATION*. 

Geine, 3.02 

Silex, 72.70 

Oxide  of  iron,         .         .         .         .         .         .9.15 

Alumina,         .         .         .         .         .  .       8.30 

Lime, 0.51 

Magnesia, 0.10 

But  considering  the  elements  as  we  have  usually  treated 
them  as  silicates,  salts  and  geine,  the  composition  of  the  sev 
eral  deposits  is  shown  in  the  following  table  : 

Geine. 


Soluble. 

Insol. 

of  lime. 

lime. 

The  coarse  de-  ) 

>•  2.06 
posit  above,   ) 

1.86 

0.74 

0.90 

94.44 

Freshet,  1839,      5.40 

6.50 

2.34 

1.20 

84.66 

Freshet,  July    ) 

*       V.    Q  QA 

7-18,  '39,       \  8>m) 

6.30 

3.20 

0.60 

81.20 

285.  If  the  doctrine  of  the  action  of  silicates,  salts  and 
geine,  upon  each  other,  when  aided  by  growing  plants,  is  con- 
sidered, it  cannot  fail  to  be  perceived,  that  the  fertility  of 
soils,  periodically  overflowed  by  turbid  waters,  is  owing  to 
the  elements,  salts  and  geine,  which  it  contains,  and  to  the 
exquisitely  finely  divided  state  of  the  silicates  which  form 
the  bulk  of  the  deposit.  The  carbonic  acid  of  the  air  acts 
on  each  atom  of  silicate,  while  owing  to  the  geine  having 
been,  as  it  were,  irrigated,  the  oxygen  of  the  air  and  water 
must  put  that  into  a  state  to  evolve  carbonic  acid.  Hence,  the 
silicates  are.  at  once  decomposed,  and  their  alkali  liberated. 
How  beautiful !  It  seems  like  a  special  interposition  of  that 
beneficent  Power,  whose  blessings,  while  they  fill  us  with 
wondering  admiration,  at  the  infinite  skill  which  directs 
every  change  in  the  material  universe,  should  teach  us  also, 
that  these  changes  are  held  up  to  us,  not  only  to  admire, 


IRRIGATION.  235 

but  in  some  humble  degree  to  imitate.  Whenever  man — 
"  the  faithful  servant  and  interpreter  of  nature,"  has  thus 
learned  the  lessons  propounded  by  an  Infinite  Mind,  he  finds, 
when  he  humbly  imitates  nature's  laws,  she  is  a  kind  and 
indulgent  parent.  She  opens  her  hand  liberally,  and  gives 
fertility  by  irrigation,  and  rivers  and  streams  like  holy  water 
sprinkled  by  a  reverend  father,  fructify  all  they  bedew. 
With  hearts  thus  attuned,  by  the  observation  of  the  laws  of 
nature,  they  respond  to  the  gentle  vibrations  caused  by  the 
descent  of  genial  and  fertilizing  showers. 

286.  Rain  is  only  natural  irrigation ;  the  water  is  found, 
like  that  of  rivers,  rich  in  oxygen,  and  organic  matter.  The 
fertilizing  power  of  rain  is  referred  to  the  same  causes  which 
lead  to  irrigation,  to  the  salts  and  geinc,  which  rain  water 
contains.  Several  chemists  have  proved  the  existence  of 
saline  matters  and  organic  substances  in  the  air.  The  falling 
rain  carries  down  with  it  salts  of  ammonia,  of  soda,  of  lime, 
a»id  organic  matter.  These  all  may  be  supposed  floating  in 
the  air.  The  dry  soils  give  to  the  winds  an  impalpable  dust, 
its  silicates  _nd  geine.  When  hailstones  which  have  been 
formed  in  the  regions  of  perpetual  frost,  exhibit  almost  the 
same  substances  which  are  contained  in  rain  water,  the 
height  at  which  these  matters  float,  would  almost  compel  the 
supposition  that  they  exist  in  a  gaseous  state.  From  the 
examination  of  hailstones,  by  Girardin,  a  French  chemist,  it 
appears,  that  no  sensible  trace  of  ammonia  was  detected 
during  the  evaporation  of  their  water,  but  there  was  found 
a  notable  quantity  of  lime  and  sulphuric  acid ;  and,  above 
all,  a  large  proportion  of  an  organic  substance  containing 
nitrogen.  Melted  hailstones  have  the  appearance  of  water, 
containing  a  drop  or  two  of  milk ;  by  standing,  the  water 
grows  clear,  and  the  flocky  matter  which  settles,  burns  with 
the  smell  of  animal  matter,  and  evolves  ammonia. 


236  IRRIGATION. 

It  is  a  question  whether  this  is  not  the  source  of  the  am 
inonia  discovered  in  rain  water.  It  is  taken  for  granted, 
that  the  ammonia  in  rain  water  exists  as  a  volatile  carbon- 
ate, because  it  was  found  to  pass  over  in  distillation.  So 
does  a  volatile  product,  which  always  discolors  the  crystals 
of  sal-ammoniac,  procured  by  adding  muriatic  acid  to  the 
distilled  water.  This  discoloring  matter  was  noticed  a  cen- 
tury ago  by  Margraff.  Later  chemists  have  also  detected 
ammoniacal  salts  in  rain  water,  but  no  volatile  carbonate  of 
that  base.  It  is  well  known  that  muriate  of  soda  arises  in 
evaporation,  so  does  chromate  of  potash,  and  several  other 
salts.  If,  in  distilling  rain  water,  the  ammonia  did  not  pass 
over  in  the  volatile  organic  discoloring  product, -it  may  have 
gone  over  as  muriate  of  ammonia.  It  is  not  questioned  that 
ammoniacal  salts  exist  in  rain  and  snow  water.  The  fact  that 
it  there  exists  as  carbonate  seems  to  be  assumed,  and  is 
incompatible  with  the  salts  which  have  been  heretofore  ob- 
tained, from  rain,  snow,  and  hail.  The  subject  has  of  late 
excited  much  attention,  and  as  the  existence  of  salts  in  snow 
is  intimately  connected  with  the  old  saying  that  u  Snow  is 
the  poor  man's  manure,"  it  may  be  worth  while  to  examine 
the  foundation  of  this  proverb.  Like  all  others  of  this  class 
it  will  be  found  to  rest  on  observation,  and  is  supported  by 
experiment.  In  1751,  Margraff,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Berlin,  after  it  had  snowed  several  hours,  collected  in  glass 
vessels  as  much  falling  snow  as  afforded  3600  ounces  of 
water.  This,  carefully  evaporated,  afforded  60  grains  of 
calcareous  matter,  with  some  grains  of  muriatic  acid,  nn<l 
traces  of  nitrous  vapor.  An  equal  quantity  of  rain  water 
afforded  100  grains  calcareous  matter,  with  some  muriatic 
acid ;  and  in  both  cases  the  matter  was  discolored  by  an  oily 
substance.  A  similar  result  was  obtained  long  ago  in  Ire- 
land, by  Dr.  Rutty,  who  found  in  a  gallon  of  snow  water, 


IRRIGATION.  237 

4  grains,  and  in  one  gallon  of  rain  water,  (3  grains  of  calca- 
reous matter.  This  is  about  the  proportion  found  by  Mar- 
graff,  and  would  give  for  each  inch  of  snow  water  about 
10  Ibs.  of  salts  per  acre.  From  the  existence  of  free  acids 
in  this  case,  it  is  evident  that  no  carbonate  of  ammonia  could 
have  there  existed.  There  are  some  experiments  performed 
by  our  countryman,  Dr.  Williams,  formerly  Hollis  Professor 
of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy  in  Harvard  College, 
and  detailed  in  the  first  volume  of  his  History  of  Vermont, 
where  the  experiments  were  performed.  In  1791,  6  gallons 
of  fresh  falling  snow  water  afforded  by  evaporation  11  grains 
calcareous  matter,  2  grains  of  saline  matter,  5  grains  of  a 
dark  brown  oily  matter.  In  January,  1792,  6  gallons  of 
snow  water,  from  snow  lying  three  inches  deep  on  the  grass, 
on  an  area  of  16  square  feet,  where  it  had  lain  59  days,, 
covered  with  a  depth  of  27  inches  of  snow,  afforded  the  same 
salts  as  above,  and  105  grains  of  this  oily  matter.  This  is 
the  most  remarkable  fact,  and  may  afford  some  weight  to 
the  suggestion  before  made,  that  organic  matter  exists  gas- 
eous in  the  air.  It  must  have  been  drawn  up  by  capillary 
attraction,  or  evolved  from  the  surface  of  the  earth.  It  is 
there  condensed  by  the  snow  and  returned  to  the  earth,  im- 
pregnated with  its  salts  of  lime  and  ammonia.  The  snow  is 
"  the  poor  man's  manure."  It  not  only  adds  salts  and  geine, 
but  prevents  the  escape  of  the  last.  But  is  it  possible  that  it 
should  escape  in  the  cold  1  Doubtless  it  does  when  the 
ground  is  not  frozen.  The  snow  by  its  warm  mantle  actually 
prevents  the  earth  growing  colder,  and,  as  has  been  inge- 
niously suggested,  keeps  up  an  imperfect  vegetation.  The 
snow  thaws  frozen  ground.  In  1791,  Professor  Williams 
found  that  the  ground  which  had  been  frozen  6  inches  in 
depth  before  the  snow  fell,  not  only  had  this  frost  extracted 
in  a  few  weeks  by  snow,  but  that  the  ground,  6  inches  below 


238  PARING   AND  BURNING. 

the  surface,  had  a  temperature  of  30  degrees.  This  slight 
elevation  of  temperature  was  enough  to  allow  the  gaseous 
exhalation  of  organic  matter,  which  was  found  to  exceed 
that  of  fresh  fallen  snow  by  20  times.  This  quantity,  in 
snow  3  inches  deep,  would  give  per  acre  40  Ibs.,  and  to  this 
are  to  be  added  5  Ibs.  of  salts.  If  this  geine  is  not  a  natural 
addition  in  weight,  it  has  undergone  a  transformation  and 
become  soluble.  Besides,  every  inch  of  fresh  fallen  snow 
actually  adds  a  little  of  this  same  matter  ;  it  will  not  be 
extravagant  to  estimate  the  total  addition  of  geine  at  50  Ibs. 
per  acre  for  the  winter.  This,  added  to  the  warming  effects 
of  snow,  shows  that  it  may  have  a  genial  and  enriching 
power  on  vegetation,  independent  of  its  ammonia.  The  old 
notion  of  the  existence  of  nitre  in  snow  is  not  supported  by 
evidence ;  but  in  whatever  view  we  consider  the  salts  of  lime 
in  snow  and  rain  water,  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  carbon- 
ate of  ammonia  exists  in  atmospheric  air. 

287.  There  are  still  other  sources  of  manure,  or  the  ele- 
ments of  fertility,  which  the  farmer  can  command.  Among 
these  are  paring  and  burning  and  the  ploughing  in  of  green 
and  dry  crops. 

It  is  not  intended  to  go  into  the  detail  of  these  operations. 
All  experience  proves  their  great  fertilizing  power.  Their 
whole  action,  mysterious  as  a  part  of  it  may  appear,  depends 
for  its  success  upon  the  formation  of  geine,  salts,  and  silicates. 
And  first, — burning,  in  which  is  to  be  considered  the  effects 
of  simply  burning  the  earthy  parts  of  soils.  In  the  descrip- 
tion of  silicates,  Chap.  II.,  the  frequent  occurrence  of  pyrites, 
or  sulphuret  of  iron,  was  described,  and  this  is  especially 
the  case  in  all  clays.  The  effect  of  burning  is,  to  disengage 
sulphurous  acid,  and  the  red  and  seared  appearance  of  the 
foliage  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  brick  kiln,  which  may  be 
often  observed,  is  due  to  the  disengagement  of  acid  gases, 


PARING   AND   BURNING.  239 

during  the  process  of  burning  the  bricks.  This  acid  gas 
being  liberated,  in  the  operation  of  burning  soils,  hastens 
the  formation  of  sulphates  and  salts.  It  divides  the  silicates, 
and  thus  reduces  them  to  a  state  in  which  the  carbonic  acid 
of  the  air  more  easily  decomposes  them.  If  we  go  one  step 
further,  and  burn  the  vegetable  matter  of  the  soil,  a  portion 
of-geine  is  lost,  and  ashes  are  formed,  whose  operation  has 
been  already  considered  (Chap.  III.)  They  dissolve  any 
ge'me  in  soil ;  hence  the  practice  of  burning  the  parings  of  a 
peat  meadow,  whose  ashes  bring  the  balance  into  cultivation. 
The  whole  practice  of  burning  vegetable  soil  for  its  ashes  is 
wasteful.  The  original  mode  of  paring  and  burning,  and 
which  forty  years  ago  was  so  common  in  Europe,  is  still 
followed  in  many  places  in  England,  where  the  paring,  from 
the  operation,  is  called  push  ploughing.  It  has  been  more 
often  given  up,  from  the  excessive  crops  it  has  produced, 
exhausting  the  soil,  than  any  inherent  sin  in  the  practice  itself. 
Instead  of  paring  and  burning,  it  should  rather  be  called 
paring  and  roasting.  The  process  should  never  go  beyond 
a  good  scorching.  The  effects  of  scorching  insoluble  geine 
and  inert  vegetable  fibre,  may  be  illustrated  by  reference  to 
the  effects  of  roasting  coffee,  or  rye.  A  tough  green  berry, 
or  dry  seed,  which  is  quite  insoluble,  is  made  by  this  process 
very  soluble.  Toasting  bread  has  a  like  effect,  and  so  has 
baking  on  the  dough.  Though  in  roasting  coffee,  a  large 
portion  of  charcoal  seems  to  be  made,  yet  in  the  grounds  of 
coffee,  vegetable  fibre  is  in  that  state  in  which  air  and  moist- 
ure act,  as  they  do  on  the  geine  of  soils,  converting  the  insol- 
uble into  soluble.  If  ever  decided  good  effects  have  been 
witnessed  from  the  application  of  charcoal,  independent  of 
rain  water,  they  are  due  to  the  cause  here  pointed  out. 

288.  Turning  in  green  crops  is  returning  only  to  the  soil, 
the  salts,  silicates,  and  geine,  which  the  plant  has  drawn  out 


240  GBKKN   AND   DRY   CROPS. 

of  it,  together  with  all  the  organic  matter  the  plant  itself  has 
elaborated,  from  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  carbon,  and  nitrogen, 
from  whatever  source  derived.  It  has  decomposed,  during 
the  short  period  of  its  growth,  as  has  been  already  pointed 
out,  more  silicates  and  salts  than  the  air  only  could  effect 
during  the  same  period,  which,  being  turned  in,  restore  to 
the  soil  from  which  they  grew,  salts  and  silicates  in  a  new 
form,  whose  action  on  vegetation  is  like  that  of  alkalies. 
But,  powerful  as  are  the  effects  of  green  crops,  ploughed  in, 
it  is  the  experience  of  some  practical  men,  that  one  crop 
allowed  to  perfect  itself  and  die  where  it  grew,  and  then 
turned  in  dry,  is  superior  to  three  turned  in  green.  The 
whole  result  is  explained  by  the  fact,  that  dry  plants  give 
more  geine  than  green.  Green  plants  ferment,  dry  plants 
decay.  A  larger  portion  escapes  in  fermentation,  as  gas  and 
more  volatile  products  are  formed,  than  during  decay.  The 
one  is  a  quick  consuming  fire,  the  other  a  slow  mouldering 
ember,  giving  off,  during  all  its  progress,  gases,  which  feed 
plants,  and  decompose  the  silicates  of  soil. 

289.  The  power  of  fertility  which  exists  in  the  silicates  of 
soil  is  unlimited.  An  improved  agriculture  must  depend 
upon  the  skill  with  which  this  power  is  brought  into  action. 
It  can  be  done  only  by  the  conjunction  of  salts,  geine,  and 
plants.  Barren  sands  are  worthless,  a  peat  bog  is  little  bet- 
ter; but  a  practical  illustration  of  the  principles  which  have 
been  maintained,  is  afforded  by  every  sandy  knoll  made  fer- 
tile by  spreading  swamp  muck  upon  it.  This  is  giving  geine 
to  silicates.  The  very  act  of  exposure  of  this  swamp  muck, 
has  caused  an  evolution  of  carbonic  acid  gns ;  that  decom- 
poses the  silicates  of  potash  in  the  sand  ;  that  potash  converts 
the  insoluble  into  soluble  manure,  and  lo!  n  crop.  That 
growing  crop  adds  its  power  to  the  geine.  If  all  the  long 
series  of  experiments  under  Von  Voght.  in  Germany,  arc  to 


DECOMPOSITION   OF   SOIL.  2il 

be  believed,  confirmed  as  they  are  by  repeated  trials  by  our 
own  agriculturists,  it  is  not  t  :>  be  doubted,  that  every  inch 
of  every  sand  knoll,  on  every  farm,  may  be  changed  into  a 
soil  in  13  years,  of  half  that  number  of  inches  of  good  mould. 
290.  That  the  cause  of  the  fertility  is  derived  from  the 
decomposing  power  of  the  geine  and  plants,  is  evident  from 
the  fact,  that  mere  atmospheric  exposure  of  rocks,  enriches 
all  soil  lying  near  and  around  them.  It  has  been  thought 
among  the  inexplicable  mysteries,  that  the  soil  under  an  old 
stone  wall  is  richer  than  that  a  little  distance  from  it.  Inde- 
pendent of  its  roller  action,  which  has  compressed  the  soil 
and  prevented  the  aerial  escape  of  its  geine,  consider  that 
the  potash  washed  out  of  the  wall  has  done  this,  and  the 
mystery  disappears.  The  agents  to  hasten  this  natural  pro- 
duction of  alkali,  are  salts  and  geine.  The  abundance  of 
these  has  already  been  pointed  out  in  peat  manure.  Next 
to  this,  dry  crops  ploughed  in ;  no  matter  how  scanty,  their 
volume  constantly  will  increase,  and  can  supply  the  place  of 
swamp  muck.  Of  all  soils  to  be  cultivated,  or  to  be  restored, 
none  are  preferable  to  the  sandy  light  soils.  By  their  por- 
ousness, free  access  is  given  to  the  powerful  effects  of  air. 
They  are  naturally  in  that  state,  to  which  trenching,  draining, 
and  subsoil  ploughing  are  reducing  the  stiffer  lands  of  Eng- 
land. Manure  may  as  well  be  thrown  into  water,  as  on  land 
underlaid  by  water.  Drain  this,  and  no  matter  if  the  upper 
soil  be  almost  quicksand,  manure  will  convert  it  into  fertile 
arable  land.  The  thin  covering  of  mould,  scarcely  an  inch 
in  thickness,  the  product  of  a  century,  may  be  imitated  by 
studying  the  laws  of  its  formation.  This  is  the  work  of 
"Nature's  'prentice  hand;"  man  has  long  been  her  journey- 
man, and  now  guided  by  science,  the  farmer  becomes  the 
master-workman,  and  may  produce  in  one  year  quite  as 
much  as  the  apprentice  made  in  seven. 
11 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

PHYSICAL    PROPERTIES    OF    SOIL. 

291.  IN  all  attempts  at  improving  soil  by  manure,  two 
objects  are  intended,  which  form  the  golden  rule  of  apply- 
ing salts  and  geine ;  to  make  "  heavy  land  lighter,  light  laud 
heavier,  hot  land  colder,  and  cold  land  hotter."  Are  there  then, 
notwithstanding  all  that  has  been  offered  and  said,  differences 
in  soil  ?  Have  not,  it  may  be  asked,  all  the  preceding  pages 
been  based  on  the  fact,  that  there  is  but  one  soil  ?  True,  it 
has  been  so  said,  it  is  said  so  now.  Chemically,  the  inorganic 
elements  of  all  soil  are  alike.  The  silicates  and  salts  are 
nearly  the  same  in  all ;  the  organic  portion,  the  geine,  varies, 
and  that  to  a  greater  degree  than  any  other  ingredient. 
While  the  silicates  compose  with  great  uniformity  about  89 
per  cent.,  and  the  salts  of  lime,  sulphate,  and  phosphate,  &e., 
2  per  cent.,  the  geine  varies  from  1  to  20  per  cent.  The 
silicates  may  be  finer  or  coarser,  more  sandy  or  more  clayey. 
These  circumstances  affect  not  the  chemical,  but  the  physical 
properties  of  soil.  The  physical  properties,  then,  are  the 
foundation  of  the  great  diversity  which  soil  exhibits.  The 
subject  of  soil  will  have  been  very  imperfectly  treated,  if  a 
few  pages  are  not  devoted  to  this  important  subject. 

Liebig  has  observed  that,  "  it  is  the  duty  of  the  chemist 
to  explain  the  composition  of  a  fertile  soil,  but  the  discovery 
of  its  proper  physical  state  or  condition  belongs  to  the  agri- 

(242) 


PHYSICAL   PROPERTIES   OF  SOIL.  243 

culturist."  Evidently,  in  the  opinion  of  the  authority  quoted, 
the  composition  and  physical  state  of  soils  are  independent 
of  each  other ;  and  it  may  be  thought  that  the  author  is  ex- 
ceeding the  limits  bounded  by  chemistry,  when  he  touches 
this  new  field,  thus  appropriated  to  the  agriculturist. 

292.  The  physical  characters  of  soil  are  embraced  under 
the  terms,  cold,  hot,  wet,  and  dry  land.  These  characters 
are  dependent  on  four  circumstances. 

Firstly,     the  absolute  weight  of  a  given  bulk  of  soil, 

Secondly,  its  color, 

Thirdly,     its  consistency. 

Fourthly,  its  power  of  retaining  water. 

In  other  words,  the  physical  characters  of  soil  may  be  con- 
sidered under, 

Firstly,      its  relation  to  heat, 
Secondly,  its  relation  to  moisture  and  gas. 
Thirdly,     its  consistency, 
Fourthly,  its  electrical  relation. 

The  relation  to  consistency  makes  soil  light  or  heavy ; 
the  relation  to  heat  and  moisture  makes  soil  hot  or  cold, 
dry  or  wet.  The  great  natural  varieties  of  soil  are,  sand, 
clay,  and  loam ;  first,  the  great  distinction  in  the  scale 
of  soil,  is  sand  and  clay :  all  intermediate  varieties  proceed 
from  mixtures  of  these,  with  each  other.  Now  the  sand 
may  be  siliceous  or  calcareous,  that  is,  composed  of  silicates, 
the  distinguishing  character  of  soil  in  this  country,  or  mixed 
with  a  salt  of  lime,  the  feature  of  much  European  soil.  By 
clay  is  meant  common  blue  clay,  or  sub-silicate  of  alumina, 
consisting  of  alumina  36,  silica,  68,  oxide  of  iron,  and  salts 
of  lime,  and  alkalies,  6. 


244  PHYSICAL   PROPERTIES  OF  SOIL. 

Sandy  clay  is — clay  and  sand,  equal  parts. 
Loamy  clay  is — f  clay,  and  £  sand. 
Peaty  earth  is — geine. 
Garden  mould  is — 8  per  cent,  geine. 
Arable  land  is — 3  per  cent,  geine. 

Taking  these  several  varieties,  it  is  found,  that  sand  ia 
always  the  heaviest  part  of  soil,  whether  dry  or  wet;  clay  is 
among  the  lightest  parts;  geine  has  the  least  absolute  weight, 
so  that  while  a  cubic  of  sand  weighs,  in  its  common  damp 
state,  141  Ibs.,  clay  weighs  115  Ibs.,  and  geine  81  Ibs. ;  hence 
garden  mould  and  arable  soil  weigh  from  102  to  119  Ibs. 
The  more  geine  compound  soil  contains,  the  lighter  it  is. 

293.  Among  the  most  important  physical  characters  of 
soil,  is  the  power  of  retaining  heat;  this  will  be  found  to  be 
nearly  in  proportion  to  its  absolute  weight.  The  weight  of 
soil  determines,  with  tolerable  accuracy,  its  power  of  retain- 
ing heat.  The  greater  the  mass  in  a  given  bulk,  the  greater 
is  this  power.  Hence,  sands  retain  heat  longest,  three  times 
longer  than  gei"«.  and  half  as  long  again  as  clay.  Hence, 
the  dryness  and  heat  of  sandy  plains.  Sand,  clay,  and  peat, 
are  to  each  other  as  1,  2,  and  3  in  their  power  of  retaining 
heat.  But  while  the  capacity  of  soil  to  retain  heat,  depends 
on  the  absolute  weight,  the  power  to  be  warmed,  another 
very  important  physical  character,  depends  on  four  principal 
circumstances :  first,  the  color ;  second,  the  dampness  ;  third, 
the  materials ;  fourth,  the  angle  at  which  the  sun's  rays  fall. 
First,  color ;  the  blacker  the  color,  the  easier  warmed. 
White  sand  and  gray  differ  almost  50  per  cent.,  in  the 
degree  of  heat  acquired  in  a  given  time.  As  peat  and  the 
varieties  of  geine  are  almost  all  of  a  black,  or  dark  brown 
color,  it  is  seen  how  easily  they  may  become  warm  soils), 
when  dry  ;  for  seconlly,  dampness  modifies  the  influence  of 


PHYSICAL   PROPERTIES   OF   SOIL.  245 

color,  so  that  a  dry,  light-colored  soil  will  become  hotter, 
sooner  than  a  dark  wet  one.  As  long  as  evaporation  goes 
on,  a  difference  of  10  or  12  degrees  will  be  found  be- 
tween a  dry  and  a  wet  soil  of  the  same  color.  Thirdly,  the 
different  materials  of  which  soils  are  composed,  exert  but 
very  little  influence  on  their  power  of  being  heated  by  the 
sun's  rays.  Indeed,  if  sand,  peat,  clay,  garden  mould,  all 
equally  dry,  are  sprinkled  with  chalk,  making  their  surfaces 
all  of  a  color,  and  then  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays,  the  differ- 
snces  of  their  temperature  will  be  found  inconsiderable. 
Color  and  dry  ness,  then,  exert  a  most  powerful  influence  on 
the  capacity  of  soil  to  be  warmed. 

Fourthly,  the  last  circumstance  to  be  noticed,  is  the  differ- 
ent angle  at  which  the  sun's  rays  fall.  The  more  perpen- 
dicular, the  greater  the  heat.  The  effect  is  less  in  propor- 
tion, as  these  rays  by  falling  more  slanting,  spread  their 
light  out  over  a  greater  surface.  But  this  point,  which  seems 
external  to  soil,  need  not  be  enlarged  on.  Now,  the  great 
fact  to  be  observed,  in  this  relation,  of  soil  to  heat  is,  that 
geine  exerts  the  most  marked  influence.  If  soil  heats  quickly, 
it  is  because  it  has  a  large  proportion  of  geine.  Does  it  cool 
quickly  1  It  is  the  geine  which  gives  up  heat  quickly,  refer- 
ring here  to  the  soil  in  a  dry  state,  the  modification  pro- 
duced by  dampness  having  been  already  considered. 

294.  The  relation  of  soil  to  moisture  and  gas,  is  not  less 
important  than  that  of  heat.  All  soil,  except  pure  siliceous 
sands,  absorb  moisture,  but  in  different  degrees.  Geine 
possesses  the  greatest  power  of  absorption,  and  no  variety 
of  geine  equals  in  its  absorptive  power,  that  from  animal 
manure.  The  others  rank  in  the  following  order,  garden 
mould,  clay,  loam,  sandy  clay,  arable  soil.  They  all  saturate 
themselves  with  moisture  by  a  few  days'  exposure.  It  is  a 
Very  interesting  question,  Does  soil  give  up  this  absorbed 


246  PHYSICAL   PROPERTIES  OF  SOIL. 

water  speedily  and  equally?  Is  its  power  of  retaining  water 
equal  ?  As  a  general  fact,  it  may  be  stated,  that  the  soil 
•which  absorbs  fastest  and  most,  evaporates  slowest  and  least. 
Geine  evaporates  least  in  a  given  time.  The  power  of  evapo- 
ration is  modified  by  the  consistence  of  soil ;  by  a  different 
degree  of  looseness  or  compactness  of  soil.  Garden  mould, 
for  instance,  dries  faster  than  clay.  As  it  has  been  already 
shown,  that  the  power  of  being  warmed  is  much  modified  by 
moisture,  so  the  power  of  a  soil  to  retain  water  makes  the 
distinction  of  a  hot  or  cold,  wet  or  dry  soil.  In  all  the  rela- 
tions to  moisture,  as  to  heat,  geiue  exercises  the  greatest 
influence. 

295.  Connected  with  this  power  of  absorption  of  moisture, 
is  the  very  important  relation  of  soil  to  gas.  All  soil  absorbs 
oxygen  gas,  when  damp,  never  when  dry.  Of  the  ingredi- 
ents of  soil,  geine  forms  the  only  exception  to  this  rule. 
That  absorbs  oxygen,  whether  it  be  wet  or  dry.  Geine  has 
this  power  in  the  highest  degree,  clay  next ;  frozen  earths 
not  at  all.  A  moderate  temperature  increases  the  absorp- 
tion. 

When  earths  absorb  oxygen,  they  give  it  up  unchanged. 
They  do  not  combine  wi'""  it  They  merely  induce  on  the 
absorbed  moisture  pov<»r  to  imbibe  oxygen.  But  when 
geine  absorbs  oxygen,  one  portion  of  that  combines  with  its 
carbon,  producing  carbonic  acid,  which  decomposes  silicates, 
and  a  second  portion  of  oxygen  combines  with  the  hydrogen 
of  the  geine,  and  produces  water.  Hence,  in  a  dry  season 
well  manured  soils,  or  those  abounding  in  geine,  suffer  very 
little.  The  power  of  geine  to  produce  water,  is  a  circum- 
stance of  soil  almost  wholly  overlooked.  It  is  one  whose 
high  value  will  appear  by  a  comparison  with  the  quantity  of 
water  produced  by  a  fresh-ploughed,  upturned  sward,  with 
that  from  the  same  soil  undisturbed.  The  evaporation  from 


PHYSICAL   PROPERTIES   OF  SOIL.  247 

an  acre  of  fresh-ploughed  land  is  equal  to  950  Ibs.  per  hour ; 
this  is  the  greatest  for  the  first  and  second  days,  ceases  about 
the  fifth  day,  and  again  begins  by  hoeing,  while  at  the  same 
time  the  unbroken  sod  affords  no  trace  of  moisture.  This 
evaporation  is  equal  to  that  which  follows  after  copious  rains. 
These  are  highly  practical  facts,  and  teach  the  necessity  of 
frequent  stirring  of  soil  in  a  dry  time.  Where  manure  or 
geine  is  lying  in  the  soil,  the  evaporation  is  from  an  acre 
equal  to  5000  Ibs.  per  hour.  At  2000  Ibs.  of  water  per 
hour,  the  evaporation  would  amount  in  92  days  to  2208000 
Ibs.  which  is  nearly  equal  to  the  amount  of  rain  which  would 
fall  in  the  same  time  in  this  climate.  But  the  evaporation 
from  woodland  actually  exceeds  the  amount  of  rain  which 
falls.  The  evaporation  from  an  acre  of  woodland  was  deter- 
mined by  Professor  Williams,  (see  his  Hist,  of  Vermont, 
vol.  I.,)  as  follows :  two  leaves  and  a  bud  of  a  branch  of  a 
growing  maple  were  sealed  in  a  bottle,  while  yet  attached 
to  the  tree.  The  expired  water  collected  and  weighed,  was 
found  to  amount  in  six  hours  to  16  grains.  The  tree  was  8^ 
inches  in  diameter,  and  30  feet  high.  It  was  felled,  and  the 
leaves  carefully  counted,  were  in  number,  21192.  Suppos- 
ing these  all  to  have  evaporated  like  those  in  the  bottle,  they 
would  have  expired,  in  twelve  hours,  339072  grains  of  water. 
A  moderate  estimate,  and  below  the  usual  quantity  of  wood 
per  acre  of  similar  land,  gave  four  such  trees  to  a  rod,  or 
640  per  acre.  Estimating  7000  grains  to  a  pint,  3875  gal- 
lons of  water,  or  31000  Ibs.  were  evaporated  from  an  acre 
of  woodland  in  12  hours.  At  Rutland,  in  Vermont,  where 
this  experiment  was  made,  in  1789,  the  Professor  notes,  that 
on  the  26th  of  May,  the  maple  leaves  were  £  of  their  full  size, 
and  on  the  15th  of  September  following,  these  leaves  began 
to  turn  white.  Throwing  out  the  15  days  in  September,  and 
the  4  in  May,  the  leaf  may  be  considered  as  fully  developed 


248  PHYSICAL   PROPERTIES   OF  SOIL. 

for  three  months.  During  these  92  days,  the  evaporation 
would  have  amounted,  at  12  hours  per  day,  to  2852000  Ibs. 
The  rain  at  the  place  during  this  period,. was  8.333  inches  or 
43rff  pounds  to  every  square  foot  of  surface,  equal  per  acre 
of  43560  feet,  to  1890504  Ibs.  The  amount  of  evaporation 
during  the  time  in  which  the  tree  was  in  full  leaf  exceeds 
that  of  the  actual  fall  of  rain,  by  nearly  1000000  of  Ibs. 
This  excess  arises  from  the  decomposition  of  geine  in  the 
soil,  and  consequent  formation  of  water,  by  the  action  of  the 
living  plant.  If  we  allow  the  process  to  go  on,  during  15 
hours  per  day,  then  in  92  days,  as  above,  3565000  Ibs.  of 
water  would  be  evaporated.  One  may  easily  understand 
how  exhausting  a  process  must  be  vegetation,  where  every 
year  all  above  ground  is  cut  and  carried  away.  Not  only 
the  geine,  whose  carbon  and  water  have  become  parts  of  the 
plant,  is  thus  withdrawn,  but  a  still  larger  portion  disappears 
as  water  and  carbonic  acid.  In  forests,  the  annual  fall  of 
leaves  and  wood,  in  fields,  the  ungathered  crop,  may  add 
more  than  the  amount  thus  withdrawn  from  soil.  That  plants 
do  form  from  carbonic  acid  and  water,  a  great  amount  of 
vegetable  matter,  is  by  all  admitted.  This  amount  in  dry 
or  green  crops  turned  in,  increases  the  geine  of  soil. 

There  is  yet  another  view  of  the  effect  of  the  conversion 
of  geine  into  water.  Allowing,  as  has  been  asserted,  that  all 
land,  forest  or  cultivated,  produces  annually  about  the  same 
amount  of  carbon,  then  the  amount  of  water  transpired 
above  from  woodland  in  15  hours,  is  nearly  equal  to  dissolv- 
ing one-half  of  the  geine,  to  produce  that  amount,  leaving 
the  balance  to  be  derived  from  air.  An  acre  of  woodland 
produces,  it  is  said,  annually,  about  1783  English  pounds  of 
carbon.  If  water  dissolves  only  5J',ff  part  of  its  weight  of 
humus,  or  geine,  then  3565000  dissolves  1426  Ibs.,  which,  at 


PHYSICAL    PROPERTIES   OF   SOIL.  249 

58  per  cent,  carbon  are  equal  to       ...     827  Ibs. 
Leaving  to  be  derived  from  air,         .         .         .     956    " 


This  is  taking  geine  in  its  most  insoluble  state.  The  great 
increase  of  solubility  when  combined  with  alkali  would  ren- 
der the  annual  amount  of  water  transpired  equal  to  dissolv- 
ing, as  geine,  all  the  carbon  which  has  been  added  to  the 
plant. 

The  advantage  of  a  light  porous  open  soil  is  now  evident ; 
it  lets  in  air,  it  lets  off  steam.  This  steam,  charged  with 
carbonic  acid,  acts  on  silicates,  eliminates  alkalies,  waters  and 
feeds  plants.  Salts,  geine,  and  barren  pine  plains,  are  the 
elements  of  a  western  prairie.  Nature  never  bestowed  upon 
man  soil  of  greater  capability  of  being  made  lastingly  fer- 
tile, than  the  sandy  light  soil  of  New  England. 

296.  It  is  evident  that  the  terms  of  heavy  and  light,  given 
by  the  farmer  to  soil,  do  not  refer  to  their  absolute  weight 
(293).  These  distinctions  depend  on  firmness  or  consistency 
of  soil.  This  produces  a  very  marked  difference  in  the  fer- 
tility and  tillage  of  land.  The  terms  light  and  heavy,  mean 
lighter  or  heavier  to  work.  It  is  well  known  that  clay  lands 
are  heavy  to  work,  sandy  soil  the  lightest  and  easiest,  next 
to  this  is  a  soil  containing  a  small  portion  of  geine.  All 
light  soil  becomes  heavy  when  wet,  but  it  is  a  well-ascer- 
tained fact,  that  heavy  soil  always  becomes  lighter  by  frost. 
Hence  the  reason  of  breaking  up  with  a  plough  before  winter. 
Moist  earth  then  becomes  frozen,  and  its  particles  being 
driven  asunder  by  frost,  it  becomes  lighter,  in  truth  it  has 
been  found  that  the  consistency  of  clay  is  diminished  nearly 
one-half  by  frost,  and  loamy  clay,  one- half  to  two-thirds.  It 
is  essential  to  this  change  from  heavy  to  light  land,  that  the 
11* 


250  PHYSICAL   PROPERTIES   OF  SOIL. 

soil  be  wet  enough  to  freeze.  It  is  well  known,  that  if,  by 
frost,  the  nature  of  the  soil  is  thus  changed,  that  if  it  is 
ploughed  while  wet  after  freezing,  the  labor  of  the  fall 
ploughing  is  lost.  A  lasting  injury  is  done  by  ploughing 
land  too  wet. 

297.  In  reference  to  the  electrical  relations  of  soil,  the  dry 
sands  are  non-conductors,  the  clays  weak  imperfect  conduct- 
ors, they  are  in  the  negative  state.     Geine  is  always  positive 
towards  the  elements  of  soil. 

298.  In  whatever  view  we  regard  geine,  it  is  the  basis  on 
which  rests  the  whole  art  of  agriculture.     It  is  this  which 
causes  the  great  difference  of  soil.     It  is  a  difference  of  phys- 
ical characters.     The  chemical  characters  are  uniform.     If, 
then,  geine  is  the  soul  of  fertility,  if  it  makes  soil  hot,  cold, 
wet,  dry,  heavy  or  light,  the  proportion  and  state  in  which  it 
exists  in  soil,  becomes  an  agricultural  problem  of  the  highest 
value.     This  would  lead  to  chemical  analysis.     The  lectures 
in  which  the  principles  set  forth  in  this  book  were  explained, 
terminated  with  a  practical  exhibition  of  the  process  of 
analysis- of  soil.     Having  already  greatly  exceeded  the  limits 
to  which  it  was  intended  to  confine  these  pages,  the  subject 
of  analysis,  and  several  other  topics,  may  be  resumed  at 
some  other  time. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

BONES,    SUPERPHOSPHATE    OF    LIME,    AND    ITS   PREPARATION. 

299.  BONES   have   been  already    partially    adverted    to 
(233)  ;  their  use  in  farming  has  been  long  known  and  widely 
adopted  in  England  and  in  Europe,  and  is  beginning  to  be 
understood  and  valued  in  the  older  portions  of  the  United 
States. 

Bones  are  the  only  available  home  source  of  phosphate  of 
lime.  Next  to  guano,  which  owes  a  large  portion,  and 
sometimes  all  of  its  value,  to  phosphate  of  lime,  bones  enter 
largely  into  the  composition  of  the  artificial  manure  powders 
of  commerce.  The  worth  and  employment  of  bones  in 
farming  demands  an  extended  notice,  and  is  now,  for  the  first 
time,  introduced  into  the  fourth  edition  of  the  Muck  Manual. 
It  is  one  of  those  topics  to  which  allusion  is  made  at  the 
close  of  the  preceding  section  (298). 

300.  Bones  consist  of  an  organic  or  animal  part,  which 
forms  about  -^,  and  of  an  inorganic  or  mineral  part,  chiefly 
phosphate  of  lime,  which  forms  |-  of  bone.     As  remarked 
(217),  gelatine  or  glue  is  derived   from  certain  animal   tis- 
sues, tendons,  ligaments,  gristle  and  bones,  so,   under   the 
name  of  gelatine,  it  will  be  convenient  to  denominate  the 
animal  part  of  bones.     It  is  under  the  form  of  gelatine  that 
the  bony  tissue  is  extracted. 

301.  Bones  force  and  quicken  vegetation,  or  develop  and 
form  seed. 

(261) 


252  BONKS. 

The  first  action  depends  on  the  fermentation  of  the  gela- 
tine, which  produces  ammonia,  and  induces  chemical  motion. 
The  second  action  depends  on  the  phosphate  of  lime,  an 
essential  element  in  all  roots  and  seeds.  Hence  bones  are 
to  be  regarded  as  stem  and  leaf  formers,  or  as  root,  seed,  or 
grain  formers. 

If  both  objects  are  to  be  attained,  then  the  whole  bone 
must  be  used ;  if  only  root  and  grain  growing  is  intended, 
then  the  phosphate  of  lime  is  to  be  regarded. 

302.  Bones,  therefore,  are  to  be  studied, 
1st,  as  entire. 

2,  as  deprived  of  a  portion  of  their  gelatine. 

3,  as  deprived  of  all  their  animal  parts. 

First,  as  entire  bone.  This  comprises  raw  bones,  butchers' 
bones,  and  such  as  are  usually  thrown  aside  as  useless,  or  to 
the  dogs,  after  the  meat  has  been  cooked  and  removed  for 
the  family. 

The  composition  of  entire  bone  may  be  stated  as  follows : 

Moisture,      .         .         .         .         .         .         .12. 

Fat,      .                 8. 

Gelatine, 30. 

Phosphate  of  lime,         .....  44. 

Carbonate,  of  lime,         .....  3. 

Magnesia 0.025 

Soda, 1.625 

Alkaline  chlorides  and  sulphates,   .         .         .  0.750 


100. 


No  practical  use  can  be  made  of  bones  till  they  aro 
crushed  into  very  small  bits;  these,  even  of  half-inch  sizt-, 
called  half-inch  bones,  are  now  rarely  used.  Bones  should 


BONES.  253 

oe  ground  to  meal,  bone  meal ;  the  finer  ground,  the  better. 
In  this  state,  a  pile  of  meal,  if  moistened,  soon  heats,  fer- 
mentation sets  in,  and  the  gelatine  evolves  from  4  to  6  per 
cent,  of  its  weight  as  pure  ammonia. 

Doubtless  this  fermentation  has  its  value,  if  excited  in 
bone  meal  before  using  it  as  a  manure.  If  ammonia  es- 
capes, which  is  easily  known  by  the  smell,  this  valuable 
element  can  be  retained  by  sprinkling  the  pile  with  a  few 
pounds  of  plaster,  or  with  half  a  pint  of  oil  of  vitriol 
stirred  into  two  gallons  of  water  for  every  100  Ibs.  of  bone 
meal. 

If  it  were  easy  to  reduce  bones,  in  their  entire  state,  to 
powder,  its  animal  part  could  be  easily  retained.  But  the 
practical  difficulty  of  grinding  raw  bones  is  just  beginning  to 
be  overcome,  and  however  perfectly  this  process  may  be 
hereafter  effected,  still  the  amount  of  raw,  or  entire  bones, 
will  be  always  very  small  compared  with  bones  from  which 
a  portion  of  the  animal  matter  has  been  removed.  This 
leads  to  the  second  head  of  the  subject,  bone  as  deprived  of 
a  portion  of  its  gelatine. 

This  is  effected  by  a  continued  and  long  boiling  in  the 
open  air,  skimming  off"  the  fat  and  gelatine  as  they  arise  to 
the  surface  of  the  water ;  or  better,  by  steaming,  under  a 
pressure  of  4  or  5  pounds  on  the  inch,  by  which  the  gelatine 
is  removed,  and  may  be  extracted  as  glue.  This  leaves  the 
bone  porous,  and  as  the  water  immediately  fills  the  pores, 
the  bone  weighs  as  much  nearly  as  it  did  before  boiling. 
By  long  boiling,  or  steaming  and  separating  the  fat  and  glue, 
bone  becomes  soft  and  pliable  while  warm,  but  hard  and 
brittle  when  cold.  In  this  state  bone  readily  breaks,  easily 
grinds. 

The  following  is  the  composition  of  bone  partly  deprived 
of  its  gelatine : 


254  BONES. 

Water,     .  10. 

Animal  matter          ......  20.2 

Phosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia,      .         .         .  61.5 

Carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia,      .         .         .  8.3 


100. 

Ordinarily  well-boiled  bones  would  give  nearly  a  similar 
result,  but  some  extra  boiled  gave  Prof.  Way  the  following 
composition : 

Water, 10. 

Animal  matter, 16. 

Phosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia,        .         .         .     60. 

Carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia,        .         .         .11. 

Sand,         . 3. 


100. 

The  animal  part  affords  from  2  to  3  per  cent,  of  nitrogen, 
equal  to  about  9  ounces  of  pure  ammonia  from  every  100 
pounds  of  bone.  Practical  experience  has  shown  that  bone 
meal  in  this  half  animal ized  state  is  its  most  valuable  agri- 
cultural form.  Though  not  as  lasting  as  bone  ash  from 
burned  bones,  it  works  quicker  and  stronger.  This  bone  meal 
ferments,  and  gives  off  ammonia,  while  the  phosphate  of  lime 
by  its  combination  with  gelatinous  matter,  easily  dissolves  in 
rain  water.  Hence,  it  is  the  result  of  experience,  that  all 
bone  meal  acts  best  on  soils  moderately  sandy  and  light ; 
clay  lands  exclude  air,  sandy  lands  hold  no  water ;  on  these 
bone  meal  acts  only  after  two  or  three  years,  yet  guano  acts 
on  these  at  once. 

Bone  meal,  deprived  of  a  part  of  its  animal  matter,  is  best 
employed  when  added  to  the  compost  heap  at  the  rate  of 
from  200  to  500  Ibs.  per  acre.  If  used  alone,  it  is  best  to 
sow  it  as  top  dressing  during  the  early  spring  rains,  after  the 


BONES.  255 

frost  is  out  an  inch  or  two,  or  if  used  for  root  or  grain  crops, 
harrowed  or  lightly  ploughed  in. 

Thirdly.  Bone,  deprived  of  all  its  animal  matter,  calcined 
or  burned  bone,  bone  ash,  sugar  house  refuse,  or  bone  black. 
Bones  are  easily  reduced  to  the  state  of  ash  by  piling  them 
up  with  a  little  light  wood  or  fagots,  and  firing  the  mass. 
The  bones  continue  burning  till  reduced  to  whiteness,  be- 
coming brittle  as  pipe  stems  and  very  easy  to  grind.  By 
this  mode,  all  animal  matter  is  burned  up.  If  bones  are 
heated  in  closed  vessels,  leaving  a  small  vent,  as  in  bakingi 
bone  black  is  produced,  containing  all  the  earthy  part  of  the 
bone,  mixed  with  the  coal  of  the  animal  portion.  This  serves 
for  decoloring  sugar  and  other  syrups,  and  after  having 
served  this  purpose  several  times,  by  repeated  burning,  the 
spent  bone  black  is  sold  to  farmers  and  others  as  sugar  house 
refuse  ;  when  mixed  with  the  scum  and  other  impurities 
arising  during  the  clarification  of  sugar,  it  is  more  valuable 
for  agriculture  than  simple  sugar  house  black. 

303.  In  the  state  of  bone  ash,  phosphate  of  lime  is  more 
insoluble  than  as  bone  meal.  It  has  been  found,  that  by 
treating  bone  ash,  as  also  bone  meal,  with  certain  acids,  the 
phosphate  of  lime  is  brought  into  a  highly  soluble  state. 
The  cheapest  acid,  and  that  commonly  used  for  this  purpose, 
is  oil  of  vitriol,  which  produces,  by  its  action  on  bone,  both 
plaster  and  soluble  phosphate  of  lime,  called  SUPERPHOS- 
PHATE. 

In  this  acid  state,  bone  acts  quicker,  goes  farther  and  lasts 
longer  than  in  any  other  form.  Acid  may,  therefore,  be 
economically  applied  to  all  forms  of  bone,  entire,  partially, 
or  wholly  deprived  of  its  gelatine. 

This  application  is  often  called  dissolving  bone  in  acid. 
There  is  no  clear  solution.  It  is  a  mere  breaking  up,  it  is  a 
softening,  pap-forming  process,  and  bone,  in  this  state,  would 


256  SUPERPHOSPHATE   OF   LIME. 

more  appropriately  be  called  bone-pap.  The  bone  is  merely 
so  far  reduced  that,  when  rubbed  between  the  iliuinn  and 
finger,  no  grit  is  felt.  Bone  cannot  all  dissolve,  for  the  oil 
of  vitriol,  when  added  rightly,  unites  with  the  lime  of  car- 
bonate and  phosphate,  and  forms  with  that  insoluble  sulphate 
of  lime,  or  plaster.  It  is  this  which  gives  the  grayish  white 
look  to  the  bone  porridge. 

304.  That  this  subject  may  be  placed  in  a  clear  light  to 
him  who  intends  to  prepare  superphosphate  for  his  own  use, 
or  for  market,  the  properties  of  phosphoric  aeid  must  be 
adverted  to.  Jt  is,  like  the  acids  found  in  geine,  many 
based,  requiring  at  least  3  portions  of  base  to  1  of  acid,  for 
neutralization.  These  combinations  should  be  well  under- 
stood, and  they  may  be  illustrated  by  reference  to  the  phos- 
phates of  lime ;  for 

Phosphoric  acid  1  part,  lime  1  part,  form  superphosphate  ;  acid. 

Do.         1  part,  lime,  lime,  2  parts,  form  subphosphate  ;  less  acid. 
Do.         1  part,  lime,  lime,  lime,  3  part*,  form  neutral  phosphate . 

In  this  last  form  it  is  found  in  bones ;  this  forms  pure 
bone  earth.  If  to  this  neutral  phosphate  oil  of  vitriol  is 
added,  it  combines  with  and  removes  a  portion  of  the  lime 
from  the  phosphoric  acid,  more  or  less  according  to  the 
quantity  added.  No  quantity  will  take  away  all  the  lime. 

Each  part  of  lime  requires  its  equivalent  of  oil  of  vitriol. 
If  to  neutral  phosphate  of  lime,  oil  of  vitriol  (which  maybe 
designated  by  0.  V.)  sufficient  to  unite  with  one  part  of  lime, 
is  added,  the  result  may  be  illustrated  as  follows  : 

Neutral  phosphate  of  lime  contains  one  proportion  of  acid 
and  three  of  lime,  or 

Phosphoric  acid,  lime,  lime,  lime, 
Add,  .  .  .  O.V. 


SUPERPHOSPHATE   OF   LIME.  257 

Result  is,  phosphoric  acid,  lime,  lime,  plaster. 
Add  to  this,      .  .  .    O.V. 

Result  i^  phosphoric  acid,  lime,  plaster,  plaster. 

The  neutral  phosphate  of  lime  is  thus,  by  2  equivalents  of 
oil  of  vitriol,  changed  to  two  portions  of  plaster  and  one  of 
super  or  acid  phosphate  of  lime.  Leaving  out  the  plaster,  if 
to  the  superphosphate  is  added  enough  O.  V.  to  unite  with 
all  the  lime,  -^  of  the  superphosphate  will  remain  unacted 
on  ;  while  f  of  the  lime  of  the  remaining  |-  of  the  superphos- 
phate unite  to  the  oil  of  vitriol,  and  form  plaster,  the  other 
fourth  of  the  lime  combines  with  all  the  phosphoric  acid,  and 
forms  superphosphate  containing  1  acid  to  ^  lime,  or  4  acid 
to  1  lime.  This  may  be  considered  as  almost  free  phospho- 
ric acid.  It  is  a  compound  known  to  chemists  as  quadri- 
phosphate  of  lime ;  that  is,  quadruple  phosphate.  Phos- 
phoric acid  dissolves  its  own  weight  exactly,  and  no  more, 
of  phosphate  of  lime  ;  of  course  this  compound  of  4  acid  to 
1  lime,  being  almost  free  acid,  dissolves  that  •£  of  the  super- 
phosphate of  lime  which  had  been  unacted  on  by  the  O.  V., 
and  thus  forms  a  true  biphosphate  or  double  superphosphate 
of  lime,  a  compound  of  2  acid  to  1  lime. 

This  may  appear  somewhat  complicated  to  those  unac- 
quainted with  chemical  changes.  Perhaps  the  subject  may 
be  illustrated  and  elucidated  by  representing  by  words  the 
substances,  and  by  figures  their  weights,  or  equivalent  num- 
bers. Supposing  the  operations  to  be  performed  on  pure 
bone  earth,  the  mass  remaining  after  the  addition  of  the  best 
commercial  O.  V.  will  be  represented  as  follows: 

lot}  Ibs.  of      )    Contain       Phosphoric  acid.        Lime.        Lime.        Lime. 

hone  earth  )   Ibs.        72      28    28    28 

add 
100  Ibs.  O.V.  =,    .  50    50 


258  SUPERPHOSPHATE   OF   LIME. 


72 
form  lOOlbs. 

+            28 
superphosphates. 

78         +         78 
form  156  Ibs.  plaster. 

If  to  the  100  Ibs.  of  superphosphate  thus  obtained,  50  Ibs. 
of  O.  V.  are  added  to  combine  with  the  lime,  the  result  will 
be  as  follows  : 

100  Ibs.  superphosphate ;  deduct  £  unacted  on, 
33 

67  Ibs.  superphosphate,  containing  48.24  Ibs.  phos.  acid, 
and  18.76  Ibs.  lime. 

f  of  the  lime,  or  14.07  Ibs.  unite  with  25  Ibs.  of  O.  V., 
and  form  39  Ibs.  of  plaster,  while  25  Ibs.  of  O.  V.  remain 
free.  Of  the  lime,  £  or  4.69  Ibs.  unite  with  12.06  Ibs.  of 
the  phosphoric  acid,  and  form  16.75  Ibs.  of  superphosphate, 
while  the  balance  of  the  phosphoric  acid,  or  36.18  Ibs.,  dis- 
solves the  33  Ibs.  of  superphosphate,  which  were  unacted  on, 
and  form  69.18  Ibs.  of  double  superphosphate,  or  2  acid  to 
1  lime. 

Omitting  fractions,  the  final  result  of  adding  to  156  pounds 
of  pure  bone  earth,  150  pounds  of  O.  V.  will  be  the  produc- 
tion of 

195  Ibs.  of  plaster  of  Paris, 
25  Ibs.  of  free  oil  of  vitriol, 

86  Ibs.  of  bi,  or  double  superphosphate  of  lime,  contain- 
ing 72  Ibs.  phosphoric  acid,  14  Ibs.  of  lime. 

Thus  we  have  all  the  phosphoric  acid  of  the  original  156 
Ibs.  of  bone  earth,  with  ^  only  of  its  lime,  in  this  superphos- 
phate. It  is  to  be  observed  that  oil  of  vitriol  of  commerce 
contains  about  40  Ibs.  of  real  acid  in  50  Ibs.,  the  balance  is 
water,  which  enters  into  the  composition  of  the  plaster. 


SUPERPHOSPHATE   OF   LIME  259 

The  amount  of  oil  of  vitriol  used  above  is  by  far  too  great. 
It  has  been  calculated  thus,  to  show  that  no  amount  of  O.  V. 
added  to  the  mixture  above,  will  produce  free  phosphoric 
acid.  That  may  be  obtained  by  adding  O.  V.  to  the  clear 
liquor,  which  may  be  drawn  from  the  mixture  by  leaching. 
Still  an  excess  of  oil  of  vitriol  has  its  value,  as  will  be  here- 
after shown.  If  the  proportion  is  reduced  for  100  Ibs.  pure 
bone  earth,  to  87i,  or  £  the  weight  of  the  bone  earth,  it  will 
be  seen,  presently,  that  this  will  be  an  advisable  proportion 
to  be  used,  whatever  form  of  bone  earth  may  be  used  for 
conversion  into  superphosphate  of  lime. 

So  much  for  the  chemistry  of  this  subject.  Before  this 
knowledge  can  be  practically  applied,  the  composition  of 
bone  must  be  recollected.  As  has  been  shown  (302),  bone 
comprises  other  substances  of  mineral  origin,  besides  bone 
earth.  These  also  will  combine  with  O.  V.,  and  if  it  is  in- 
tended that  the  88  parts  of  bone  earth  in  100  parts  of  bone 
ash  shall  all  be  converted  into  superphosphate,  these  hungry 
mouths  must  be  first  satisfied,  or  else  they  will  surely  help 
themselves  before  the  phosphate,  their  better,  is  served. 

On  referring  to  the  composition  of  raw  bones  (302),  it  is 
seen  that  200  Ibs.  will  afford  100  Ibs.  of  bone  ash,  composed 
as  follows : 

Phosphate  of  lime,  88  Ibs.,  requiring  77  Ibs.  of  oil  of  vitriol. 
Carbonate  of  lime,  6  "  "  G  "  "  " 

Magnesia,     .         .1.25  "  1.49       "         " 

Soda,  .         .         .    3.25  "          3.  "        "         " 

Alkaline    sulphates, 

and  chlorides,    .     1.50  "  "    "       "         " 


100  Ibs.  87.49 

Bone  meal  from 

raw  bones,  .     100  Ibs.,     require    43.75       "         " 


260  SUPERPHOSPHATE   OF   LIME. 

Boiled  or  steam- 
ed bones,         100  Ibs.  require  70.22  Ibs.  of  oil  of  vitriol. 

Sugar  house  refuse  or  bone  black  varies  much  in  its  com- 
position, containing  from  65  to  75  per  cent,  of  phosphate, 
and  from  10  to  12  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  Jime ;  its  com- 
position should  be  always  ascertained  before  conversion  into 
superphosphate  of  lime. 

As  a  general  rule,  bone  black  will  require  about  the  same 
weight  of  oil  of  vitriol  as  boiled  bones. 

306.  If  it  is  intended  to  convert  bone  ash  into  superphos- 
phate, 100  Ibs.,  as  has  been  shown  (305),  require  87^  Ibs.  of 
oil  of  vitriol  for  all  purposes.  The  product  when  dried  in 
warm  air,  so  as  to  crumble  easily  with  slight  crushing  into 
a  coarse  powder,  will  weigh  about  183  pounds,  constituted 
as  follows : 

Superphosphate  of  lime,         ....  47.71 

Sulphate  of  lime, 120.07 

"   magnesia,  .....  2.54 

"         "   soda, 4.92 

Alkaline  sulphates  and  chlorides  from  the  bone 

ash, 1.50 

Oil  of  vitriol,  free, 6.48 


183.22 

100  Ibs.  of  this  crude  mass,  commercially  termed  super- 
phosphate, are  composed  as  follows : 

Superphosphate  of  lime  of  which  are  solu- 

(double),         .         .  26.04     ble  in  water,          26  04  Ibs. 
Sulphate  of  lime,          .  65.53 

magnesia,  .     1.38     .         .         .         .     1.38  " 
'"          soda,         .    2.69     .  2.69  " 


SUPERPHOSPHATE  OF  LIME.  261 

Alkaline  sulphates  and 

chlorides,          .         .     0.82     .         .         .         .     0.82  Ibs. 
Free  oil  of  vitriol,        .     3.54     .  .     3.54  " 


100.  34.47 

No  account  is  here  taken  of  the  solubility  of  the  sulphate 
of  lime.  It  is  all  ultimately  soluble  in  cold  water.  The 
actual  amount  of  the  crude  superphosphate,  readily  soluble 
in  cold  water,  is  about  40  per  cent,  of  which  5,  or  -J,  is  sul- 
phate of  lime.  By  repeated  treatment  with  cold  water,  at 
least  one-half  of  the  air-dried  superphosphate,  as  above  con- 
stituted, is  dissolved,  and  in  the  soil  would  minister  imme- 
diately to  the  wants  of  plants.  Ultimately,  all  the  crude 
superphosphate  would  dissolve  in  soil. 

307.  Having  thus  explained  the  composition  of  bone  in  its 
various  forms,  and  determined  the  quantity  of  oil  of  vitriol 
which  is  requisite  to  convert  100  Ibs.  to  superphosphate,  that 
process  is  to  be  conducted  as  follows,  supposing  bone  ashes 
to  be  used: 

Take  a  half  hogshead  tub,  or  any  vessel  of  similar  depth, 
which  will  hold  from  80  to  100  gallons.  If  lined  with  lead 
it  is  better,  but  this  is  not  essential  for  making  a  few  hun- 
dred pounds. 

1.  Put  100  Ibs.  of  burned  bones,  ground  to  fine  powder, 
into  the  tub. 

2.  Wet  the  bone  ash  with  5^  gallons  of  cold  water,  mix- 
ing evenly. 

3.  Pour  on  this  wet  mass  5£  gallons,  or  87^-  Ibs.  by  weight 
of  best  commercial  oil  of  vitriol. 

4.  With  a  stout  wooden  paddle,  stir  the  whole  briskly,  so 
as  to  mix  thoroughly  and  evenly  the  materials.    The  mixture 
works,  froths,  and  foams,  becomes  nearly  boiling  hot,  steams 


262  SUPEKPIIOSPHATE  OF   LIME. 

like  a  boiling  pot.  Stir  away  till  the  mass  thickens  too 
stiff  to  move  easily.  Cover  over  with  an  old  blanket  and 
wooden  cover,  and  let  all  stand  24  hours,  with  occasional 
stirring. 

On  opening  the  tub  after  that  time",  a -stiff,  gray  mortar, 
moderately  dry,  will  be  found,  which  may  be  shovelled  out 
and  spread  thin  in  a  warm  dry  place.  In  two  or  three  weeks 
it  will  dry  so  as  to  break  down  under  a  mullet  or  post-setter. 
The  finer  dust  may  be  sifted  out  and  used  for  drilling  in  with 
seed  ;  or  the  whole,  before  drying,  may  be  softened  and 
broken  down  to  an  impalpable  paste,  in  its  weight  of  cold 
water,  and  then  mixed  with  the  compost  heap,  at  the  rate  of 
100  Ibs.  of  the  dry  mass  to  one  cord  of  compost.  Ordina- 
rily, there  is  obtained  from  100  Ibs.  of  bone  ash  and  87j  Ibs. 
of  oil  of  vitriol,  about  183  to  185  Ibs.  of  superphosphate  dry 
enough  to  grind.  It  may  be  ground,  after  being  cracked 
small,  in  a  grist  mill,  or  still  better,  in  a  Bogardus  mill,  such 
as  is  used  for  grinding  ores. 

The  drying  of  the  crude  mass  may  be  hastened,  and  the 
ease  with  which  it  may  be  pulverized  promoted,  by  adding 
to  it,  before  removal  from  the  tub,  absorbent  substances. 
The  best  material  is  perfectly  dry  powdered  peat  or  muck  ; 
or  if  obtainable,  the  charcoal  cinders  from  locomotives  at 
railway  stations.  Fine  dry  spent  tan  will  answer,  or  the 
finest  sifted  parts  of  anthracite  coal  ashes.  In  lack  of  these, 
bone  ash  itself  may  be  used.  Any  of  these,  added  and  stir- 
red well  in  till  the  mass  dries  and  granulates,  speedily  puts 
it  into  a  state  in  which  with  slight  drying,  the  mass  will 
easily  pulverize. 

Supposing  183  Ibs.  have  been  obtained  by  thorough  dry- 
ing, the  cost  to  the  farmer  who  collects  bones,  or  buys  them 
of  the  bone  boiler  at  $6  per  ton,  will  be  as  follows: 


SUPERPHOSPHATE   OF   LIME.  263 

200  Ibs.  of  raw  bones  burned,  give  100  Ibs. 

bone-ash, $0.600 

Burning  and  grinding, .250 

87J  Ibs.  of  oil  of  vitriol,  at  3  cts.  per  lb.,       .  2.625 


$3.475 

$0.1.896 

If  there  is  added  for  labor  besides  that  for 

burning,  (fee.,     .         .         .         .         .         .          .104 


$0.2.000 
the  cost  is  2  cts.  per  lb. 

This  is  for  a  superphosphate  which  contains  all  the  phos- 
phoric acid  of  bone  in  a  soluble  state. 

It  is  this  soluble  state  of  phosphoric  acid  which  is  most  to 
be  desired  by  the  farmer.  Every  care  should  be  taken  by 
him  that  his  phosphoric  acid  falls  not  back  into  its  insolu- 
ble state  of  phosphate  of  lime,  magnesia,  alumina  or  iron, 
when  it  comes  in  contact  with  these  elements  in  soil,  or  in 
the  compost  heap.  Lime,  or  leached  ashes,  would  immedi- 
ately reduce  the  phosphoric  acid  to  insoluble  bone  earth. 

308.  In  the  crude  mass  formed  from  bone  ash  and  oil  of 
vitriol,  as  above  described,  there  is  no  longer  any  superphos- 
phate of  lime,  or  at  most,  only  a  very  small  quantity.  It 
has  been  shown  how  very  small  a  portion  of  lime  is  com- 
bined with  phosphoric  acid  in  the  superphosphate,  when  that 
is  made  from  pure  bone  earth.  If  to  such  a  superphosphate 
of  lime,  an  alkaline  sulphate  is  added,  as,  for  instance,  sul- 
phate of  soda,  or  Glauber's  salt,  decomposition  ensues,  sul 
phate  of  lime,  insoluble,  is  formed,  and  phosphate  of  soda, 
soluble,  takes  the  place  of  phosphate  of  lime.  Now,  in  oper- 
ating on  bone  ash  with  oil  of  vitriol,  alkaline  sulphates  are 
formed,  which  with  those  already  existing  in  the  ash,  precip- 


264  SUPERPHOSPHATE  OF   LIME. 

itate  the  lime  from  the  phosphoric  acid,  and  that  alone  with 
soluble  alkaline  phosphates  remains.  By  potash,  soda,  or 
ammonia,  all  the  phosphoric  acid  may  be  converted  into 
soluble,  neutral  phosphates,  as  will  be  presently  shown. 

Again,  a  portion  of  oil  of  vitriol,  amounting  to  3£  per  cent. 
(306),  is  found  in  the  crude  mass  termed  superphosphate. 
It  has  its  use.  It  prevents  earthy  bases  in  the  soil,  or  com- 
post heap,  from  uniting  with  the  phosphoric  acid.  It  com- 
bines with  any  free  ammonia  in  the  compost  heap,  to  which 
the  superphosphate  may  have  been  added,  and  forms  mere 
sulphate  of  ammonia.  If  the  superphosphate  is  mixed  with 
guano,  the  same  effect  follows.  The  abundance  of  sulphate 
of  lime  in  a  very  finely-divided  state  in  the  crude  superphos- 
phate contributes  to  the  formation  of  sulphate  of  ammonia 
in  compost,  or  guano,  when  all  the  oil  of  vitriol  is  exhausted, 
a  little  soluble  sulphate  of  ammonia  being  likewise  formed. 
Under  every  view,  the  tendency  of  the  phosphoric  acid  is  to 
remain  free.  But  this  free  acid  is  not  what  the  plant  de- 
mands. Plants  want  soluble  phosphoric  acid  salts,  that  is, 
alkaline  phosphates,  and  therefore  the  farmer  should  see  that 
all  his  phosphoric  acid  is  converted  to  that  state. 

How  may  this  be  effected  ?  In  several :  two  or  three  of 
these  may  be  mentioned,  which  the  author  has  practically 
proved  to  form  as  effectual  a  "  superphosphate"  as  any  article 
bearing  that  name  in  the  market,  whatever  its  prefix  or  suffix 
may  be. 

1 .  If  a  forcing,  early  effect  is  desired,  united  to  the  lasting 
operation  of  common  bone  meal,  or  supherphosphate  of  lime, 
mix  as  follows : 

50  lh«.  of  erode  superphosphate  made  as  described  (SOT),  in  dry  powder. 
35  lt».  of  coda  a»h  of  commerce,  of  about  80  per  cent,  itrength. 
25  lb».  of  Peruvian  guano. 

Mix  well  together  the  superphosphate  and  soda  ash,  then 


SUPERPHOSPHATE   OF   LIME.  265 

add  the  guano.  Use  about  one  pound  of  this  mixture  to  five 
hills  of  corn,  beans,  squashes,  cucumbers,  melons,  &c.,  or 
for  peas,  turnips,  or  drilled  crops,  half  a  pound  to  every  rod 
in  length  of  furrow. 

It  may  be  mixed  with  two  or  three  times  its  bulk  of  dry 
soil,  or  scattered  over  the  bottom  of  the  hills  and  covered 
with  two  or  three  inches  of  soil,  and  the  seed  is  to  be  dropped 
on  that. 

Side  by  side  with  the  "  improved  superphosphate "  the 
above  mixture  has  produced  results  every  way  equal  to 
those  of  that  excellent  preparation. 

The  cost  per  100  Ibs.  is,  50  Ibs.  superphosphate  at  2  cts.  $1.00 
25  "  soda  ash,  "  3  «  0.75 
25  "  guano,  «  3  "  0.75 

100   "  cost  $2.50 

The  soda  ash  may  be  replaced  by  an  equal  weight  of  dry 
house  ashes,  when  soda  is  not  at  hand. 

2.  If  an  effect  showing  itself  later,  a  seed-forming  effect, 
and  a  good  drought  resister  is  desired,  mix  as  follows  : 

80  Ibs.  superphosphate,  at  2  cts.,      .         .         .     $1.60 
20    "    soda  ash,  at  3  cts.,       ....         60 

100    "  cost  $2.20 

3.  An  excellent  mixture  for  all  purposes,  combining  the 
virtues  of  the  above,  is  formed  as  follows  : 

75    Ibs.  superphosphate  at  2  cts.,  .         .         .     $1.50 
18f    "    Peruvian  guano,     3  "  .         .       0.56£ 

6£    "    soda  ash,  3  "  .  0.18f 

100    "  cost  $2.25 

12 


266  BUPERPiiosriiATE  or  LIME. 

In  this  case  the  superphosphate  and  soda,  or  house  ashes, 
are  to  be  mixed  before  guano  is  added. 

Either  of  the  above  mixed  with  twice  its  bulk  of  soil  may 
be  used  as  a  top  dressing  for  grass,  and  it  is  to  be  sown  or 
scattered  during  early  warm  spring  rains,  at  the  rate  of 
from  100  to  300  Ibs.  per  acre.  At  this  rate  they  may  be 
used  for  top  dressing  wheat  or  rye,  or  sown  with  oats  and 
grass  seed.  For  roots,  it  is  best  to  add  these  compounds  to 
the  soil,  before  sowing,  working  well  in,  and  then  sowing 
with  a  seed  planter.  For  cabbages,  &c.,  use  1  Ib.  to  five 
plants  when  set  out. 

309.  Nitrogen,  whose  conversion  into  ammonia  has  been 
explained  (187),  seems  to  be  the  great  element  introducing 
chemical  change,  and  inducing  chemical  motion  in  the  ele- 
ments of  soil.  Nitrogen,  as  has  been  stated  (20C),  always 
produces  for  a  like  weight,  like  effects,  whatever  may  be  the 
form  in  which  it  is  introduced  into  the  soil,  or  compost  heap. 
Nitrogen  is  the  element,  which  the  crude  superphosphate 
lacks,  to  make  it  a  perfectly  efficient  artificial  manure,  when 
added  either  alone  to  soil,  already  rich  in  geine,  or  to  peat 
or  swamp  muck,  after  these  have  been  treated  with  ashes, 
soda,  salt  and  lime,  &c.,  as  has  been  before  explained. 

There  is  a  source  of  nitrogen  of  which  the  farmer  may 
avail  himself,  which  may  be  added  to  his  superphosphate, 
and  go  far  towards  furnishing  anew  to  burned  bones  the  ele- 
ment of  which  fire  has  deprived  them,  or  that  element  which 
is  sought  in  guano.  This  source  of  nitrogen  is  found  in  salt- 
petre, either  East  Indian,  nitrate  of  potash,  or  South  Ameri- 
can, nitrate  of  soda. 

When  it  is  considered  that  these  nitrates  alone,  are  among 
the  most  powerful  and  beneficial  of  all  salts  applied  by 
farmers  (168),  and  that,  in  the  opinion  of  wise  and  careful 
English  agriculturists,  nitrates  mixed  with  common  salt  may 


SUPERPHOSPHATE   OF   LIME.  267 

supplant  guano  itself,  nitrates  added  to  superphosphate  may 
be  expected  to  produce  all  the  good  effects  resulting  from 
the  mixture  of  guano  and  superphosphate. 

The  following  compound  is  therefore  recommended  with 
confidence.  The  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  nitrate  here 
used,  is  about  the  same  as  that  in  the  best  mixtures  of 
guano,  salts  of  ammonia,  and  superphosphate  of  lime. 

40  Ibs.  crude  superphosphate,  2  cts.,        .         .     $0.80 

10    "    soda  ash,  3  cts., 30 

50    "    nitrate  of  potash,  or  saltpetre,  6|  cts.,        3.25 

100    "  cost  $4.35 

OR, 

38  Ibs.  superphosphate,  2  cts.,        .         .         .     $0.76 

9    "    soda  ash,  3  cts., 0.27 

43    "    nitrate  of  soda,  (Chili  saltpetre,)  5£  cts.,    2.36 


100    "  cost  $3.39 

The  cost  of  these  per  pound  is  greater  than  that  of  the 
mixtures  before  proposed,  and  above  that  of  the  commercial 
mixture.  Still,  it  is  believed  that  the  mixture  of  nitrates 
with  superphosphate,  even  at  the  above  rates,  will  be  found 
an  economical  manure,  especially  when  one  prepares  for 
himself  small  quantities  of  superphosphate  from  such  bones 
as  may  be  collected  in  his  neighborhood,  and  where  guano  is 
not  to  be  had. 

No  cheaper  or  better  addition  can  be  made,  in  the  small 
way,  by  the  farmer,  than  the  droppings  of  the  hen-roost  and 
poultry  yard,  home-made  guano. 

About  equal  parts  of  superphosphate,  sprinkled  with  a 
little  ashes,  and  of  fowl  droppings,  may  be  recommended 
for  trial. 


APPENDIX. 


No.  1. 

DR.  NICHOLS'S  STATEMENTS,  FROM  THE  ESSEX  COUNTY  AGRICULTU- 
RAL TRANSACTIONS,  1839-40. 

To  the  Committee  to  whom  was  referred  the  Communication  of 
Andrew  Nichols,  on  tlie  subject  of  Compost  Manures,  fyc. 

GENTLEMEN  : — Persuaded  of  the  importance  of  the  discoveries 
made  by  Dr.  Samuel  L.  Dana,  of  Lowell,  and  given  to  the  world 
through  the  medium  of  the  reports  of  Professor  Hitchcock  and 
Rev.  H.  Oolman,  to  the  Legislature  of  Massachusetts,  concerning 
the  food  of  vegetables,  geine,  and  the  abundance  of  it  in  peat  mud, 
in  an  insoluble  state,  to  be  sure,  and  in  that  state  not  readily 
absorbed  and  digested  by  the  roots  of  cultivated  vegetables,  but 
rendered  soluble  and  very  easily  digestible  by  such  plants,  by 
potash,  wood  ashes,  or  other  alkalies,  among  which  is  ammonia,  one 
of  the  products  of  fermenting  animal  manures,  I  resolved  last  year 
to  subject  his  theories  to  the  test  of  experiment  the  present  season. 
Accordingly,  I  directed  a  quantity  of  black  peat  mud,  procured  by 
ditching,  for  the  purpose  of  draining  and  reclaiming  an  alder  swamp, 
a  part  of  which  I  had  some  years  since  brought  into  a  state  highly 
productive  of  the  cultivated  grasses,  to  be  thrown  in  heaps.  Dur- 
ing the  winter  I  also  had  collected,  in  Salem,  282  bushels  of  un- 
leached  wood  ashes,  at  the  cost  of  12£  cents  per  bushel.  These 
were  sent  up  to  my  farm,  a  part  to  spread  on  my  black  soil  graas 


270  APPENDIX. 

lands,  and  a  part  to  be  mixed  with  mud  for  my  tillage  land.  Two 
hundred  bushels  of  these  were  spread  on  about  six  acres  of  such 
grass  land,  while  it  was  covered  with  ice,  and  frozen  hard  enough  to 
be  carted  over,  without  cutting  it  into  ruts.  These  lands  produced 
from  one  to  two  tons  of  good  merchantable  hay  to  the  acre,  nearly 
double  the  crop  produced  by  the  same  lands  last  year.  And  one 
fact  induces  me  to  think,  that,  being  spread  on  the  ice,  as  above 
mentioned,  a  portion  of  these  ashes  was  washed  away  by  the  spring 
freshet.  The  fact  from  which  I  infer  this  is,  that  a  run  below, 
over  which  the  water  coming  from  the  meadow  on  which  the 
largest  part  of  these  ashes  were  spread  flows,  produced  more  than 
double  the  quantity  of  hay,  and  that  of  a  very  superior  quality  to 
what  had  been  ever  known  to  grow  on  the  same  land  before. 

Seventy  bushels  of  these  ashes,  together  with  a  quantity  not  ex- 
ceeding thirty  bushels  of  mixed  coal  and  wood  ashes,  made  by  my 
kitchen  and  parlor  fires,  were  mixed  with  my  barn-manure, 
derived  from  one  horse  kept  in  stable  during  the  winter  months,  one 
cow  kept  through  the  winter,  and  one  pair  of  oxen  employed  almost 
daily  on  the  road  and  in  the  woods,  but  fed  in  the  barn  one  hun- 
dred days.  This  manure  was  never  measured,  but  knowing  how  it 
was  made,  by  the  droppings  and  litter  or  bedding  of  these  cattle, 
farmers  can  estimate  the  quantity  with  a  good  degree  of  correct- 
ness. .  These  ashes  and  this  manure  were  mixed  with  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  the  mud  above  mentioned,  by  forking  it  over  three 
tunes,  to  manure  three  acres  of  corn  and  potatoes,  in  hills  four  feet 
by  about  three  feet  apart,  giving  a  good  shovelful  to  the  hill. 
More  than  two-thirds  of  this  was  grass  land,  which  produced  last 
year  about  half  a  ton  of  hay  to  the  acre,  broken  up  by  the  plough 
in  April.  The  remainder  was  cropped  last  year  without  being  well 
manured,  with  command  potatoes.  Gentlemen,  you  have  seen  the 
crop  growing,  and  matured,  and  I  leave  it  to  you  to  say  whether 
or  not  the  crop  on  this  land  would  have  been  better,  had  it  been 
dressed  with  an  equal  quantity  of  pure,  well  rotted  barn-manure. 
For  my  own  part,  1  believe  it  would  not,  but  that  this  experiment 
proves  that  peat  mud,  thus  managed,  is  equal,  if  not  superior,  to 
the  same  quantity  of  any  other  substance  in  common  use  as  a  manure 
among  us,  which,  if  it  be  a  fact,  is  a  fact  of  immense  value  to  the 


APPENDIX.  271 

farmers  of  New  England.  By  the  knowledge  and  use  of  it,  our 
comparatively  barren  soils  may  be  made  to  equal  or  excel  in  pro- 
ductiveness the  virgin  prairies  of  the  West.  There  were  many  hills 
in  which  the  corn  first  planted  was  destroyed  by  worms.  A  part 
of  these  were  supplied  with  the  small  Canada  corn,  a  part  with 
beans. .  The  whole  was  several  times  cut  down  by  frost.  The  pro- 
duce was  three  hundred  bushels  of  ears  of  sound  corn,  two  tons  of 
pumpkins  and  squashes,  and  some  potatoes  and  beans.  Dr.  Dana, 
in  his  letter  to  Mr.  Colman,  dated  Lowell,  March  6, 1839,  suggests 
the  trial  of  a  solution  of  geine  as  a  manure.  His  directions  for  pre- 
paring it  are  as  follows  :  "  Boil  one  hundred  pounds  of  dry  pulver- 
ized peat  with  two  and  a  half  pounds  of  white  ash,  (an  article 
imported  from  England,)  containing  36  to  55  per  cent,  of  pure  soda, 
or  its  equivalent  in  pearlash  or  potash,  in  a  potash  kettle,  with  130 
gallons  of  water  ;  boil  for  a  few  hours,  let  it  settle,  and  dip  off  the 
clear  liquid  for  use.  Add  the  same  quantity  of  alkali  and  water,  boil 
and  dip  off  as  before.  The  dark  colored  brown  solution  contains 
about  half  an  ounce  per  gallon  of  vegetable  matter.  It  is  to  be 
applied  by  watering  grain  crops,  grass  lands,  or  any  other  way  the 
farmer's  quick  wit  will  point  out." 

In  the  month  of  June,  I  prepared  a  solution  of  geine,  obtained, 
not  by  boiling,  but  by  steeping  the  mud  as  taken  from  the  meadow, 
in  a  weak  lye  in  tubs.  I  did  not  weigh  the  materials,  being  careful 
only  to  use  no  more  mud  than  the  potash  would  render  soluble. 
The  proportion  was  something-  like  this  :  peat,  100  Ibs. ;  potash,  1 
Ib. ;  water,  50  gallons, — stirred  occasionally  for  about  a  week,  when 
the  dark  brown  solution  described  by  Dr.  Dana,  was  dipped  off 
and  applied  to  some  rows  of  corn,  a  portion  of  a  piece  of  starved 
barley,  and  a  bed  of  onions  sown  on  land  not  well  prepared  for  that 
crop.  The  corn  was  a  portion  of  a  piece  of  manured  as  above 
mentioned.  On  this  the  benefit  was  not  so  obvious.  The  crop  of 
barley  on  the  portion  watered,  was  more  than  double  the  quantity, 
both  in  straw  and  grain,  to  that  on  other  portions  of  the  field,  the 
soil  and  treatment  of  which  was  otherwise  precisely  similar 

The  bed  of  onions  which  had  been  prepared  by  dressing  it  with 
a  mixture  of  mud  and  ashes  previous  to  the  sowing  of  the  seed,  but 
which  had  not  b\  harrowing  been  so  completely  pulverized,  mixed 


272  APPENDIX 

and  kneaded  with  the  soil,  as  the  cultivators  of  this  crop  deemed 
essential  to  success,  consisted  of  three  and  a  half  square  rods.  The 
onions  came  up  well,  were  well  weeded,  and  about  two  bushels  of 
fresh  horse-manure  spread  between  the  rows.  In  June,  four  rows 
were  first  watered  with  the  solution  of  geine  above  described.  In 
ten  days  the  onions  in  these  rows  were  nearly  double  the  size  of  the 
others.  All  but  six  rows  of  the  remainder  were  then  watered.  The 
growth  of  these  soon  outstripped  the  unwatered  remainder. 

Mr.  Henry  Gould,  who  manages  my  farm  on  shares,  and  who 
conducted  all  the  foregoing  experiments,  without  thinking  of  the 
importance  of  leaving,  at  least  one  row  unwatered,  that  we  might 
better  ascertain  the  true  effect  of  this  management,  seeing  the 
benefit  to  the  parts  thus  watered,  in  about  a  week  after  treated  the 
remainder  in  the  same  manner.  The  ends  of  some  of  the  rows, 
however,  which  did  not  receive  the  watering,  produced  only  very 
small  onions,  such  as  are  usually  thrown  away  as  worthless  by  cul- 
tivators of  this  crop.  This  fact  leads  me  to  believe  that  if  the 
onions  had  not  been  watered  with  the  solution  of  geine,  not  a  single 
bushel  of  a  good  size  would  have  been  produced  on  the  whole  piece. 
At  any  rate,  it  was  peat  or  geine  rendered  soluble  by  alkali,  that 
produced  this  large  crop. 

The  crop  proved  greater  than  our  most  sanguine  expectations. 
The  onions  were  measured  in  the  presence  of  the  chairman  of  your 
committee,  and  making  ample  allowance  for  the  tops,  which  had  not 
been  stripped  off,  were  adjudged  equal  to  640  bushels  to  the  acre. 
In  these  experiments,  7  Ibs.  of  potash,  which  cost  7  cents  a  pound, 
bought  at  the  retail  price,  were  used.  Potash,  although  dearer 
than  wood  ashes  at  \'2\  cents  per  bushel,  is,  I  think,  cheaper  than 
the  white  ash  mentioned  by  Dr.  Dana,  and  sufficiently  cheap  to 
make,  with  meadow  mud,  a  far  cheaper  manure  than  such  as  in 
general  used  among  our  farmers.  The  experiment  satisfies  me  that 
nothing  better  than  potash  and  peat  can  be  used  for  most  if  not  all 
our  cultivated  vegetables,  and  the  economy  of  watering  with  a  solu- 
tion of  geine,  such  as  are  cultivated  in  rows,  I  think  cannot  be 
doubted.  The  reason  why  the  corn  was  not  very  obviously  bene- 
fited, 1  think  must  have  been  that  the  portion  of  tie  roots  to  which 
it  was  applied,  was  already  fully  supplied  with  nutriment  out  of  tha 


APPENDIX.  273 

same  kind  from  the  peat  ashes  and  manure  put  in  the  hill  at  plant- 
ing. For  watering  rows  of  onions  or  other  vegetables,  I  should 
recommend  that  a  cask  be  mounted  on  light  wheels,  so  set  that  like 
the  drill  they  may  run  each  side  of  the  row  and  drop  the  liquid 
manure  through  a  small  tap-hole,  or  tub  from  the  cask,  directly 
upon  the  young  plants.  For  preparing  the  liquor,  I  should  recom- 
mend a  cistern  about  three  feet  deep,  and  as  large  as  the  object  may 
require,  formed  of  plank  and  laid  on  a  bed  of  clay  and  surrounded 
by  the  same,  in  the  manner  that  tan-vats  are  constructed ;  this 
should  occupy  a  warm  place,  exposed  to  the  sun,  near  the  water, 
and  as  near  as  these  requisites  permit  to  the  tillage  lands  of  the 
farm.  In  such  a  cistern,  in  warm  weather,  a  solution  of  geine  may 
be  made  in  large  quantities  with  little  labor,  and  without  the  ex- 
pense of  fuel,  as  the  heat  of  the  sun  is,  I  think,  amply  sufficient  for 
the  purpose.  If,  from  further  experiment,  it  should  be  found  eco- 
nomical to  water  grass  lands  and  grain  crops,  a  large  cask  or  casks 
placed  on  wheels  and  drawn  by  oxen  or  horse  power,  the  liquor 
from  the  casks  being  at  pleasure  let  into  a  long  narrow  box  perfop- 
ated  with  numerous  small  holes,  which  would  spread  the  same  over 
a  strip  of  ground  some  -six,  eight,  or  ten  feet  in  breadth,  as  it  is 
drawn  over  the  field  in  the  same  manner  as  the  streets  in  cities  arc 
watered  in  summer. 

ANDREW  NICHOLS. 

I  certify  that  I  measured  the  piece  of  land  mentioned  in  the  fore- 
going statement,  as  planted  with  corn,  on  the  21st  of  September, 
1839,  and  found  the  same  to  contain  two  acres,  three  quarters, 
thirty-one  rods. 

JOHN  W.  PROCTOR,  Surveyor. 


DR.  ANDREW  NICHOLS'S  STATEMENT  OP  1840. 
GENTLEMEN  : — Having  invited  the  attention  of  the  Trustees  cf 
the  Essex  Agricultural  Society  to  our  continued  use  of,  and  experi- 
ments on,  fresh  meadow  or  peat  mud,  as  a  manure,  it  is  of  course 
expected  that  the  result  of  these  experiments  should  be  laid  before 
12* 


274  .APPENDIX. 

them.  The  compost  with  which  we  planted  most  of  our  corn  and 
potatoes  the  present  year,  was  composed  of  the  same  materials,  and 
managed  in  the  same  manner  as  that  which  we  used  last  year  for 
the  same  purpose. 

Four  acres  of  corn,  on  the  same  kind  of  soil,  was  manured  in  the 
hill  with  this  compost,  and  one  acre  of  corn  on  a  more  meagre  por- 
tion of  the  same  field,  was  manured  in  the  same  manner,  with  a 
compost  consisting  of  the  same  kind  of  mud,  half  a  cord  of  manure 
taken  from  the  pig-sty,  and  forty  pounds  of  potash,  second  quality, 
dissolved  in  water,  sprinkled  over  and  worked  into  the  heap,  with 
the  fork,  in  the  same  manner  that  the  dry  ashes  were  into  the  other 
compost.  Of  both  kinds  the  same  quantity,  a  common  iron  or  steel 
shovelful  to  the  hill,  was  used,  and  no  difference  in  the  crop  which 
could  be  ascribed  to  the  different  manures,  could  be  perceived.  The 
hills  were  four  by  three  feet  apart  on  an  average.  In  the  borders 
and  adjoining  this  piece  of  corn,  one  acre  was  planted  with  potatoes. 
The  compost  used  in  some  portions  of  this  consisted  of  rather  a 
larger  portion  of  coarse  barn-manure  composed  of  meadow  hay, 
corn-fodder  waste,  &c.,  wet  with  urine  and  mixed  with  the  drop- 
pings of  cattle,  and  less  meadow  mud.  The  whole  six  acres  was 
hoed  twice  only  after  the  use  of  the  cultivator.  The  whole  amount 
of  labor,  after  the  ground  was  furrowed  and  the  compost  prepared 
in  heaps  on  the  field,  is  stated  by  the  tiller  of  the  ground,  H.  L. 
Gould,  to  have  been  forty-nine  days'  work  of  one  man  previous  to 
the  cutting  of  the  stalks.  Pumpkins,  squashes,  and  some  beans 
were  planted  among  the  corn.  The  produce  was  four  hundred  and 
sixty  bushel  baskets  of  sound  corn,  eighty  bushels  of  potatoes,  three 
cords  of  pumpkins,  one  and  a  half  bushels  of  white  beans.  On  one 
acre  of  the  better  part  of  the  soil,  harvested  separately,  there  were 
one  hundred  and  twenty  baskets  of  corn  ears,  and  a  full  proportion 
of  the  pumpkins.  On  one-eighth  of  an  acre  of  Thorburn's  tree 
corn  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  rest,  the  produce  was  nine- 
teen baskets.  A  basket  of  this  corn  shells  out  seventeen  quarts, 
one  quart  more  than  a  basket  of  the  ordinary  kinds  of  corn.  The 
meal  for  bread  and  puddings  is  of  a  superior  quality.  Could  we 
depend  upon  its  ripening,  for,  Thorburn's  assertions  to  the  contrary 
notw;*hstanding,  it  is  a  late  variety  of  corn,  (though  it  ripened  per- 


APPENDIX.  275 

fectly  with  us  last  season,  a  rather  unusually  warm  and  long  one,) 
farmers  would  do  well  to  cultivate  it  more  extensively  than  any 
other  kind. 

The  use  of  dry  ashes  on  our  black  soil  grass  lands  showed  an  in- 
creased benefit  from  last  year.  But  our  experiments  with  liquid 
manure  disappointed  us.  Either  from  its  not  being  of  the  requisite 
strength,  or  from  the  dryness  of  the  season,  or  from  our  mistaking 
the  effects  of  it  last  year,  or  from  all  these  causes  combined,  the 
results  confidently  anticipated,  were  not  realized  ;  and  from  our 
experiments  this  year  we  have  nothing  to  say  in  favor  of  its  use, 
although  we  think  it  worthy  of  further  experiments.  On  the  first 
view  of  the  subject,  a  dry  season  or  a  dry  time  might  seem  more 
favorable  to  the  manifestations  of  benefit  from  watering  plants  with 
liquid  manure,  than  wet  seasons  or  times.  But  when  we  consider 
that  ^ien  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  dry,  the  small  quantity  of 
liquid  used  would  be  arrested  by  the  absorbing  earth  ere  it  reached 
the  roots,  and  perhaps  its  fertilizing  qualities  changed,  evaporated, 
or  otherwise  destroyed,  by  the  greater  heat  to  which  at  such  times 
it  must  be  exposed — it  is  not,  I  think,  improbable  that  the  different 
effects  noticed  in  our  experiments  with  this  substance,  the  two  past 
years,  might  be  owing  to  this  cause.  It  is  my  intention,  should 
sufficient  leisure  permit,  to  analyze  the  soil  cultivated  and  the  mud 
used,  and  prepare  a  short  essay  on  the  subject  of  peat  mud,  muck, 
sand,  &c.,  as  manure,  for  publication  in  the  next  volume  of  the 
transactions  of  the  society. 

Yours,  respectfully, 

ANDREW  NICHOLS. 

Danvers,  December  20, 1840. 


No.  II. 

EXTRACT  FROM  DR.  NICUOLS'S  LETTER. 

Danvers,  Jan.  28,  1842. 

DEAR  SIR  : — I  am  sorry  to  say  that  I  have  no  new  facts  to  com- 
municate. Nor  have  I  anything  that  contradicts  my  former  views 
on  the  subject  of  peat,  as  manure.  "We  used  it  in  compost  on  about 


276  APPENDIX. 

nine  acres  of  corn  and  potatoes  last  summer,  one-half  of  which  was 
the  same  land  on  which  it  was  used  the  preceding  season.  Its 
effects  seemed  not  to  be  lessened  by  this  second  trial  in  the  same 
soil.  The  compost  was  as  formerly  composed  by  mixing  the  mud, 
barn-manure,  ashes  or  potash  together  in  the  field,  in  spring,  two  or 
three  weeks  before  the  corn  was  planted  ;  in  a  part  of  it,  say  the 
manure  for  two  acres,  about  20  Ibs.  of  nitrate  of  potash  were  used. 
Wherever  the  nitre  was  used,  worms  were  absent ;  other  parts  of 
the  field  were  more  or  less  injured  by  them.  This  was  all  the  good 
that  we  could  positively  ascribe  to  the  nitre.  Our  crops  were  in  a 
most  flourishing  condition  on  the  morning  of  the  30th  of  June  ;  in 
the  afternoon  and  evening  of  that  day,  a  violent  tempest  and  two 
showers  of  hail  blew  down  my  barn,  half  my  fruit  trees,  and  pros- 
trated and  mangled  the  corn.  I  should  have  bargained  readily 
with  any  one  who  would  have  insured  me  half  the  crop  realAd  the 
preceding  year  from  the  same  laud  and  management.  But  the 
healing  powers  of  nature  and  genial  influences  of  summer  suns  and 
showers,  in  a  few  days  restored  the  field  again  to  a  flourishing  con- 
dition. A  drought  more  severe  than  that  of  the  preceding  season 
followed  in  August ;  and  our  crop  of  corn  per  acre,  was  about  J  less 
thau  the  crop  of  that  year.  My  farmer,  H.  L.  Gould,  from  his  suc- 
cess with  the  mud  which  you  analyzed,  was  strongly  impressed  with 
the  belief  that  other  peat  mud  would  not  prove  as  good.  I  request- 
ed him  to  make  an  experiment,  which  he  accordingly  did,  with  two 
cart-loads  of  peat?  such  as  makes  good  fuel,  taken  directly  from  the 
swamp,  mixed  with  ashes,  and  used  in  the  same  quantity  by  meas- 
ure, as  the  other  compost.  He  planted  with  this  four  rows  of  corn 
through  the  piece.  And,  contrary  to  his  expectations,  if  there  was 
any  difference,  he  acknowledged  that  these  rows  were  better  than 
the  adjoining  ones.  The  mud  you  analyzed,  contained,  you  recol- 
lect, a  large  portion  of  granitic  sand ;  this  peat  much  less  sand  but 
more  water,  it  being  quite  spongy.  The  same  bulk,  therefore,  as 
taken  from  the  meadow  and  used  in  our  experiment,  would  probably 
have  weighed,  when  dry,  not  more  than  i  or  4  as  much  as  the  other. 
The  quantity  of  geiue  in  the  shovelful  of  the  two  kinds,  varies  not 
very  much  after  all.  I  regret  that  Mr.  Gould  did  not  repeat  his 
experiments  with  the  solution  of  geinc  last  season.  My  farm  is 


APPENDIX.  277 

Beven  miles  from  my  residence,  and,  like  yourself,  I  turn  no  furrows 
with  my  own  hand,  nor  can  I  oversee,  in  their  various  stages,  ex- 
periments there.  I  suggest,  advise,  and  leave  him  to  execute.  He 
found  himself  too  much  hurried  with  his  work,  to  attend  to  this 
subject  at  the  proper  time.  In  answer  to  your  question  I  say — that 
the  solution  the  second  year  was  not  applied  to  the  same  land,  and 
although  used  in  much  larger  quantities,  it  was  not  as  strong  as 
that  used  the  past  year. 

Yours,  respectfully, 
To  S.  L.  DANA,  M.  D  ANDREW  NICHOLS. 


It  will  be  observed  that  about  three  cords  of  swamp  mud  and  33 
bushels  of  ashes  have  been  used  per  acre,  in  1839,  and  40  Ibs.  of 
potash  in  1840. 

The  number  of  hills  is  3630  per  acre.  Then  calculating  the  real 
potash,  there  were  given  to  each  hill  of  corn  about  £  pint  of  ashes, 
or  32  grains  of  alkali,  in  1839,  and  45  grains  in  1840. 

If  three  cords  of  swamp  muck  were  used  in  1840,  about  6  oz.  of 
dry  geine  have  been  applied  per  hill — the  muck  being  like  pond 
mud.  Now,  45  grains  of  alkali  and  6  oz.  of  geine,  and  ^  o'8^  of  a 
cord  of  pig-manure  per  hill,  have  here  produced  effects  equal  to 
guano.  No  new  source  of  nitrogen  has  been  opened  to  the  corn. 
The  effects  are  due,  then,  to  the  alkaline  action  on  geine,  and  of 
salts  upon  silicates.  The  failure  of  the  solution  in  the  second  year 
is  probably  owing  to  the  formation  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  ;  see 
section  (238). 


No.  III. 
LETTER  FROM  HON.  WILLIAM  CLARK,  JR. 

Northampton,  \0tk  February,  1842. 

DEAR  SIR  : — The  results  of  the  few  trials  1  have  made  with  alka- 
lies to  neutralize  the  acidity  of  swamp  muck,  have  not  been  ascer- 
tained with  that  precision  that  is  necessary  to  determine  conclu- 


278  APPENDIX. 

sively  which  is  beat.  I  will,  however,  give  you  the  experiments  (if 
they  deserve  the  name),  as  they  were  made,  with  the  apparent  results. 
The  first  was  with  fine  well  decomposed  muck,  from  the  swamp  of 
which  you  had  samples,  numbered  5,  6,  and  7.  In  the  spring  of 
1840,  16  Ibs.  of  soda  ash,  or  white  ash,  dissolved  in  water,  were 
carefully  mixed  with  two  estimated  tons  of  the  muck,  and  the  mix- 
ture applied  as  a  .op-dressing  for  corn.  Two  other  estimated  tons 
of  the  muck  were  served  with  eight  bushels  of  dry  wood  ashes,  all 
well  mixed  together  and  spread  on  one  side  of  the  muck  that  was 
served  with  the  white  ash,  and  further  on,  an  equal  quantity  of  fresh 
barn-yard  manure  was  spread,  and  still  farther  on,  an  equal  quantity 
of  compost,  made  of  one  part  barn-manure,  and  two  parts  muck, 
mixed  and  fermented  before  using. 

The  land  was  a  light  sandy  loam,  on  the  border  of  a  pine  plain, 
and  the  whole  field  was  treated  alike  in  all  respects,  except  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  manure,  all  of  which  was  spread  on  the  turned  fur- 
row, and  harrowed  in  before  planting.  The  corn  planted  where  the 
wood  ashes  and  muck  were  spread,  early  took  precedence  of  all  the 
other  parcels,  and  continued  apparently  much  the  best  through 
the  season.  Among  the  other  parcels,  no  striking  difference  in 
growth  or  yield  was  manifest.  The  whole  field  was  harvested 
together,  without  separate  weight  or  measurement ;  and  the  advan- 
tage which  the  ashes  and  muck  apparently  gave  over  the  others, 
rests  (where  no  experiment  should  rest)  on  the  opinion  of  those 
whose  attention  was  called  to  it  while  the  corn  was  growing. 

A  similar  trial  of  ashes  and  muck,  and  soda  and  muck,  was  made 
the  same  season  on  grass  land ;  and  the  advantage  was  decidedly  in 
favor  of  the  soda  ash  and  muck,  as  on  the  corn  land  it  was  in  favor 
of  the  ashes  and  muck. 

Why  the  soda  ash  should  act  relatively,  more  favorably  upon  the 
muck  spread  on  grass  land  than  when  spread  on  corn  land,  I  am 
unable  to  determine,  unless  it  be  the  partial  shade  which  the  grasd 
affords  to  protect  it  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  and  measurably 
preserve  its  moisture  and  softness.  This  inference  ia  strengthened 
by  the  fact  that  muck,  treated  as  in  the  above  cases — with  soda 
ash  in  solution  (which  makes  it  somewhat  pasty),  in  the  onry^nstancc 
I  have  tried  it — spread  on  the  surface  of  an  old  field,  withoft  a  pro- 


APPENDIX.  279 

lecting  crop,  or  subsequent  harrowings  to  cover  it  in  the  soil,  be- 
came apparently  sun-baked  so  hard  as  to  defy,  for  a  time  at  least, 
the  softening  action  of  water.  This  hardening  effect  was  not  ob- 
served to  take  place  with  the  muck  treated  with  the  dry  ashes,  or 
in  the  manure  compost,  and  may  have  arisen  from  the  insufficient 
quantity  of  alkali  used  in  the  case  mentioned. 

In  another  case,  one  Ib.  of  soda  ash,  and  one  Ib.  of  soft  soap  were 
mixed  with  four  bushels  of  muck,  and  all  put  in  a  fifty  gallon  tub, 
and  the  tub  filled  with  water,  and  left  to  stand  five  or  six  days  with 
an  occasional  stirring  ;  at  the  end  of  that  period,  the  dark  colored 
water  was  dipped  off  and  applied  to  various  garden  plants  and 
vegetables,  and  the  tub  again  filled  with  water,  and  the  muck  stir- 
red up,  and  after  a  day  or  two  the  water  was  again  dipped  off  and 
applied  as  before,  and  the  tub  again  filled  with  water.  This  pro- 
cess was  continued  for  two  or  three  weeks  in  the  early  part  of  the 
season,  and  the  muck,  though  gradually  wasting,  without  additional 
alkali,  continued  to  ferment  from  time  to  time,  and  yield  black 
liquor,  to  appearance  nearly  as  rich  as  the  first.  Rapid  growth  of 
the  plants  followed  in  all  cases  when  it  was  applied,  and  its  effects 
upon  a  lot  of  onions  would  have  been  ascertained  with  considerable 
accuracy,  had  not  a  "  hired  man"  took  it  into  his  head  that  the  few 
rows  purposely  left  for  comparison,  were  suffering  by  unwitting 
neglect,  and  gave  them  a  "  double  dose,"  thereby  equalizing  the 
growth,  and  sacrificing  the  experiment  to  his  honest  notions  of  fair 
dealing,  which  required  that  all  should  be  treated  alike.  In  another 
case,  a  muck  compost  dressing,  formed  by  previously  slacking  quick- 
lime with  a  strong  brine  of  common  salt,  to  disengage  the  acid  of 
the  salt,  that  its  soda  might  act  on  the  muck  when  in  contact,  was 
applied  as  a  top-dressing  for  corn,  without  any  perceptible  effect, 
perhaps  for  want  of  skill  in  compounding. 

Facts  abundantly  testify  to  the  fertilizing  properties  of  swamp 
muck  and  peat,  when  brought  to  a  right  state,  and  the  subject  of 
your  inquiry  perhaps  yields  to  no  other,  at  the  present  time,  in  point 
of  importance,  to  our  good  old  Commonwealth.  Taking  your  esti- 
mate of  the  weight  of  fresh-dug  muck  or  peat,  and  Professor  Hitch- 
cock's estimate  of  the  quantity  in  the  state,  and  the  saving  of  one 
ceut  per  ton  in  the  expense  of  neutralizing  its  acidity,  and  fitting  it 


280  APPENDIX. 

for  use  in  agriculture,  when  applied  to  all  our  swamp  muck  and  j>eat, 
will  amount  to  an  aggregate  saving  to  the  industry  of  the  Common- 
wealth, of  over  five  and  a  half  millions  of  dollars.  IB  there  a  rea- 
sonable doubt  that  more  than  ten  times  this  ope  per  cent,  per  ton 
will  be  saved  over  any  present  process,  when  chemistry  has  shed  ita 
full  light  on  the  subject  ? 

The  magnitude  and  importance  of  a  small  saving  in  this  matter, 
must  certainly  have  been  overlooked  by  some  who  have  given  ad- 
vice on  the  subject  of  making  muck  compost. 
Respectfully, 

Your  most  obedient  servant, 

WILLIAM  CLARE,  JR. 
S.  L.  Dana,  M.D.,  Lowell,  Mass. 


No.  IV. 

EXTRACT  FROM  A  LETTER  OF  MR.  JOSEPH  A.  FOSTER  TO  THE 
AUTHOR,  RELATING  TO  IMITATION  SPENT  LYE  (238). 

Attleboro',  February  6th,  1844. 

DEAR  SIR  : — I  determined  last  spring  to  make  a  trial  of  the  imi- 
tation spent  lye,  recommended  in  the  "  Manual,"  and  the  object  of 
this  communication  is  to  give  you  the  results. 

I  mixed  the  composition  in  the  manner  and  proportion  stated, 
with  one  exception,  using  two  bushels  of  ashes  instead  of  one.  I 
then  Rpread  it  upon  grass  land,  seeded  down  to  herd's  grass  and 
clover.  The  soil  was  rather  a  dry,  gravelly  loam.  It  was  spread 
upon  a  piece  of  land  about  ten  rods  long,  and  two  broad.  It  was 
spread  the  27th  of  April.  On  the  8th  of  June,  or  a  little  more  than 
five  weeks  after  the  application,  as  I  find  by  the  farm  journal,  the 
effects  of  it  were  distinctly  visible.  The  grass  was  both  much 
darker,  or  deeper  green,  and  much  taller.  The  spot  was  distinctly 
marked  where  the  composition  was  spread.  The  difference  contin- 
ued to  be  much  more  apparent,  and  several  persons  who  knew  not 
that  anything  had  boon  put  on,  pointed  out  the  spot  upon  which  it 
had  l>een  applied:  The  difference  continued  to  increase  till  the  dry 
weather  came  on,  when,  in  common  with  other  dry  lands,  the  grass 


APPENDIX.  281 

hi  a  short  time  was  completely  scorched.  The  grass  upon  which 
this  manure  had  been  applied  did  not  dry  up  any  quicker  than  that 
around  it.  The  grass  had  not  attained  half  its  growth  when  it  was 
mown.  The  spot  upon  which  the  imitation  was  spread,  had  not  the 
drought  come  on,  would  have  yielded  at  least  one-half  as  much  more 
as  an  equal  area  by  its  side. 

Respectfully  yours, 

JOSEPH  A.  FOSTER. 


INDEX. 


Section. 
ACETATES,  formation  01,  .  ....       47 

Acids,  "  .  .  .  .  .44, 52,  65 

"  "  in  plants,  .  .  .  .  93, 98 

"  "  "         salts  necessary  to,  .  98 

"    action  of,      .  .  .  .  .  .46,  47,  153 

"        "         on  alkalies,     .....  46 

"    in  salts,  action  of,     .  .  .  .  .  .      150 

"  "     cause  of  peculiarity  of  action  of,          .           .            145 

"  difference  in  constitution  of,           ...          156,  157 

"  different  strength  of,      .            .            .            .            .            166 

"  rule  for  naming,                   .....        66 

" .  combine  only  in  their  equivalents,        ...              58 

"  in  soil,  when  free,    .           .           .            .           .            .162 

"  crenic,    .           .           .           .           .           .            .     101,  102 

"  "     many  based, ......      126 

"  "     saturating  power  of,                  .           .           .            126 

"  apocrenic,    ......          101,  103 

"  "          many-based,             ....            126 

"  "         saturating  power  of,      .           .           .            .      126 

"  geic,       ..;...                      .            101 

"  humic,          .                        .....      101 

"  phosphoric,        ......            163 

"  Bulphuric,    .......      153 

"  weak,  action  on  sugar,  ....           (p.  92) 

"  ulmic,           .......      101 

Agriculture,  improvement  of,  ....            289 

"         mineralogy  of         ....  37 

(236) 


286  INDEX. 

sicnox. 

Agriculture,  value  of  small  discoveries  in,    ...  128 

"        relation  to  silicates  and  salts,         .  .  .91 

Agricultural  Chemistry,  aims  of,  .  1 

first  principle  of,  .  .        19 

"  second    "  .  .  .  .  20 

"  "  third       "  .  .  .29 

"          fourth,    "   .  .    .        .  .  75 

*  "fifth        "         ....        84 

"  "  "  chemical  proof  of,  84 

"  "  "  agricultural    »'  85 

"  "  sixth      "     .  .  .  .  91 

"  "  seventh"  .  .  .95 

"  "  eighth,  "     .  .  .  .104- 

"  "  ninth     "  .  .  .134 

"  "  "         "  result  of,       .  135 

"          tenth     "  .  .  .145 

"         Geology,          .  .  .  .  .  2, 3 

Albumen,  analysis  of,  .  .  .  .  .217 

"        in  dung,     ......     184,  201 

Alkalies,  ........        41 

"      properties  of,  .....  46 

"      strong  resemblance  in,  .  .  .  .  .63 

"      catalytic  action  of,  .  .  .  .  .  126 

"      combine  only  in  their  equivalents,      .  58 

"      sufficiency  of  in  soil,  ....  75 

"      in  soil  not  free,  ......        76 

«      effects  on  geine,  126,  128,  136,  142, 162,  264,  276,  187 

"         "  "     cause  of,     ....  137 

"      in  ashes,  ......      163 

"      action  of  carbonates  on,     .  .  .  .    159,  Ifi9 

"      action  on  vegetable  fibre,         .  .  .  .136 

"  "  "  connected  with  growth  of 

plants,      .  .  137 

"      soluble, 272 

«  "     within  the  reach  of  all,      ...  274 

"      other  forms  of  cheap,    .  .  .  .  .275 

"      action  of  salt  on,      .....  275 

"      stearateof,        ......      227 

"      margarate  of,  .....  227 


INDEX.  287 

SECTION. 

Alkalies,  relative  value  of,  .  264 

Alkaline  geates,          .  .  .  .  .  .     118,  124 

"      bases,      .  ...  62 

"      affinity  of,  for  carbonic  acid,  .  .  62 

Alum,  formation  of,  .  .  .  .  .79 

Alumina,  geate  of,  .  .  .  .  .  121 

"        phosphate  of,    .  ,  .  .  .80 

"        silicate  of,  .  .  .  .  .  .  48 

;(        insolubility  of,  in  water,          .  .  .  .62 

"        quantity  of,  in  rock,  ....  58 

"        combining  weight  of,   .  .  .  .  .56 

"        peculiarities  of,       .....  64 

Ammonia,  in  soil,  unites  with  organic  acid,       .  .  .       101 

"         changes  to  nitric  acid,       ....  126 

"         humate  of,  changed  to  apocrenic  acid,          .  .      126 

"         in  manure,  .....  178 

in  cow-dung,  .....          186,  187 

"          produced  yearly  by  one  cow,        .  .  .  191 

the  main  value  of  manure,     ....       192 

"         catalytic  action  of,  ....  194 

"          sources  of,      .  .  .  .  .  .      200 

"    in  proteine,     .....     219 

"    in  bone,    ......   223 

in  all  animal  matters,       .  .  .  .  216 

in  peat,  ......      260 

"         action  of,  in  dung,  ....  263 

"         chemical  equivalent  of,  ....      265 

"         equal  to  soda  for  agricultural  purposes, .  .  265 

Ammoniacal  salts  of  urine,  .....      246 

"  "     and  peat  powder,  ....  278 

Analysis  of  horse-dung,  Girardin's,        ....      203 
"       "  sheep    "  "...         (p.  153) 

"       <;  146  Massachusetts  soils,        .  .  .  .33 

"       "     15  Wisconsin          "  .  .  (p.  32) 

"       "     48  European  "  .  .  (p.  33) 

"       "  soils,  413,  table  of,          .  .  .  (p.  35) 

"       ci  night-soil,     :(       "      .  .  .  .  .208 

"       "  vine  ashes,          .....  21 

Animal  matter,    .......      167 


288  INDEX. 

ncnox. 

Animal  matter,  use  of .  .  .  .  .  194 

"  '•      all  affords  geine,  ammonia  and  salts,      .  .      216 

"        source  of  alkali  for  peat,       ....  277 

"        products  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,         .  .      220 

"  "        first  class  of,  ...  .  221 

"  "        second    " 221 

Animalized  coal,        ......  210 

Anthracite  coal,  ashes  of,  .  .  .  .  .163 

Apocrenates  formed  by  nitric  and  humic  acid,         .  .  126 

Ashes,  action  on  soil,       .  .  ....      135 

"      value  of,          .....  163 

"      constituents  of,     .  .  .  .  .  .163 

*  divisible  in  two  parts,  .  163 
"      of  hard  wood,  analysis  of,                                               .      163 
"                "           soluble  part  of,           ...            163 
«                 «            insoluble    "                     .           .           .163 
"      pine,  analysis  of,         '                      .           .                       163 
"      of  several  American  trees,  analysis  of,     .           .           .163 
"      wheat  straw,    ....                                   163 
"      anthracite  coal,     ....                       .163 

*  leached,  value  of,        ....  163 
"            "       con  tents  of  cord  of,          .           .           .           .164 
"           "       salts  in,          .           .                       .           .  164 
"      of  manure,  value  of, .                   .           .           .  (p.  154) 

«       "       "        table  of,    .  .  .  (p.  154) 

"      "  vine,  analysis  of,          .  .  .  .  .21 

Atomic  weight,          ...  55 

"  "     theory  of,  .  .  .  .55 

Atoms,  combinations  of,        •  ....  55 

Author,  not  a  practical  farmer,  .  .  .  .  .271 


Barley,  limits  of,        .                                                          .  26,28 
"           "       cause  of,          .....       28 

"      temperature  necessary  to  growth,     ...  26 

"               "          of  germination,      .           .           .  .26 

Bases,  alkaline,          ......  41 

"         "         properties  of,      ....  62 

**          "         equivalents  of,          ...  62 


INTDEX.  289 

SECTION 

Bases,  alkaline,  action  on  gt'ine, ....  147 

*'      metallic,  ......  58 

"      carbonates  of,  in  ashes,      .  .  .  .  .92 

"      separated  from  the  acid,          ....  142 

"      of  all  salts,  acts  ever  the  same,      .  .  .          145,152 

Bones,  constituents  of,          .  .  .  .  .  223 

"      bone  earth  in,       ......       223 

•'      tallow  in  after  boiling,  .  .  .  223 

"      liquor  of,  as  manure,       ...  (p.  158) 

"      their  importance  and  value    ....  299 

"      in  what  way  they  act,      .....       301 

"      entire  composition  of  ....  302 

partially  deprived  of  gelatine,     ....       302 

' '      steamed  and  boiled,   .....  302 

"      ash,          .......       302 

"      oil  of  vitriol  to  dissolve,        ....  305 

Bromine  in  seaweed,       ......         87 

Burning  of  crops,       ......  287 

' '      effects  of,         .....      287 

C. 

Carbon,  chemical  equivalent  of,       .  .  .  57 

"       in  sandy  soil,     ......       127 

"       sulphuret  of,  .....  65 

Carbonates,         .  .  .  .  .  .  52,  159 

"  of  ammonia,       .....  265 

Carbonate  of  lime  in  leached  ashes,         ....       164 

"  "      in  soil,  remarks  on,  ...  33 

Carbonic  acid,  evolved  by  roots,  .  .  .    (p.  130) 

"          "      formation  of,  ....  57 

"      chemical  equivalent  of,  .  ...  .57 

"      affinity  for  alkaline  bases,     ...  62 

"      cause  of,  ....  93,  170 

"          "      absorbed  by  geates,  .  .  .  .  120 

"  "      action  on  silicates,          .  .  .  133,  134,  159 

renltof,  .  .  135 

"      in  plants,  .....       167 

"     composition  of.  ...  55 

Carburets,  .......         49 


290  INDEX. 

•onon. 

Cartilage  of  bone,  as  manure,          .            .  223 

Caseine,  analysis  of,                    .             .             .  .            .217 

Catalysis,  action  of,             ...  137 

"         definition  of,  .                        .  69 

Catalytic  power,      .            .  A*.  140,  141,  142 

Chalk  in  eggshells,        ...  215 

clamshells,              ...  .215 

Charred  peat,     ....  .278 

Chemical  equivalent,  definition  of, 

"               "         important  to  fanners  .        f>0 

"       formulae,  of  proteine,        ..  .            £19 

Chlorides,           ....  .       170 

"        source  of,             ...  .             8J 

"        in  granite  rocks,        .  .81 

"     Hayes  on,  8P 

Chlorine  in  soil,  ....  8? 

Columbine,  ....  21* 

Combining  number,        ...  .        5f 

Compost  of  animal  matter,  ...  .            161 

Copperas,            ....  .       17A 

Cotton,  phosphates  in,           ...  .             V 

Cow-dung,  the  type  of  manures,            .  .            .17.* 

"         composition  of,    .           .            .  .           17? 

"          analysis  of,    ...  .            .      180 

"         value  of,  dependent  on  food,       .  .           .           20<* 

"         water  in,        ...  18' 

"         general  analysis  of,          ....    105,18? 

"         ammonia  in,             ....  107,  18? 

"         ultimate  analysis  of,        ....  18« 

"         quantity  produced  by  one  cow,       .  .      18-a 

"         compared  with  horse-dung,        .  .            .           28' 

"         cost  of,                       .            .            .  .            .      27* 

"         from  meal  compared  with  from  hay,  .           .           199 

"         richer  in  summer  than  winter,         .  .           .      20P 

"         action  of,              .....  201 

Craseo,  analysis  of  vine  ashes,     .....        2) 

D. 

Decay,  definition  of,   ....  .107 


INDEX.  291 

SECTION. 

Decay,  first  product  of,    .            .            .  .            .            .110 

"      hastened  by  potash  and  lime,            .  .            .            136 

'•            "            alumina,        .            .  .            .            .136 

"      general  products  of,  .            .            .  .            .             101 

Decomposition,  as  effecting  value  of  manure,  .             .      (p.  56) 

Deodorizing  vaults,  how  done,          .            .  (p.  171) 

Drought,  its  effects  on  manure,               .  .            .    (p.  159) 

Dung,  horse,  how  treated,      ...  (p.  145) 

"        "        fermentation  of,      .            .  .            .    (p.  145) 

E. 

Eggshells,  lime  in,      .  .            .            .            .            .            215 

Elements  defined,  ......        35 

"  number  of,                  .                     .            .            .              40 

"  atomic,           ......        55 

"  earthy  and  metallic,         .            .            ...              40 

"  volatile  and  combustible,       .            .             .            .40 

"  division  of,             .....              41 

"  "         adopted,    .            ....        61 

"  unequal  affinity  of,              ....       54, 55 

"  combination  of,            ......        55 

"  proportion  of  combination,            ...              56 

"  of  soil,  metallic  and  unmetallic,         .            .            .40 

"  "        action  of,   .            .            .            .            .            130 

«  «        defined, 131 

"  "        two  classes  of,                   .           .           .            101 

<;  "        first  class  of,    .            .            .            .            .      102 

"  "        second  class  of,      .            .            .            .            103 

"  metallic,  change  to  unmetallic,           .            .            .64 

"  mineral,  cause  of  decomposition  of,         .            •            137 

"  number  selected  by  plants,     .            .            .            .87 

"  wherein  plants  do  not  obey  chemical  laws  of,       .              87 

"  susceptibility  of  change,         .            .            .            .90 

"  number  of,  in  organic  parts  of  soil,           .            .              89 

"  "            inorganic  parts  of  soil,             .            .        89 

"  organic,  complex  combination  of,              .            .              99 

"  inorganic,  simple            "                    ...        99 

"  organic,  character  of,         ....             99 

"  "         products  of  decomposition  of,         .           .100 


292  INDEX. 

•OMB. 

Elements  organic,  one  constant,       ....    100,  101 

"        inorganic,         .  .  .  .  .  .115 

"        organic,  of  plants,  ....  167 

"        relative  weight  of,  .  .  .  .65 

••        of  silicates,  laws  of  combination  of,         .  .  56 

Kpsom  salts,  formation  of,  .....        79 

European  soils,  analyses  of,   ....     (p.  33,  35) 

Evaporation  from  soil,     .  .  .  .  .  .      294 

"      woodland,  ....  295 

Excrement,  human,  analysis  of,  .  .  .  .    (p.  150) 

"  "        ashes  of,  table  of,          .  .         (p.  156) 

F. 

Farmer,  the,  a  chemist,    ......        39 

"  philosophy  of,   .  .  .  .  .  36 

pole-star  of,  .....        36 

knowledge  of  terms,     ....  36 

"  important  fact  to,   .  .  .  .  .79 

"  true  field  of  action  of,  .  .  .  .  N         103 

"  first  requisite  of,    .  .  .  .  .      172 

Fats,  action  of  air  on,  .....  224 

••     action  on  silicates,  .....      224 

"    chemical  composition  of,          ....  224 

Feathers,  analysis  of,      .  .....      218 

Feoes,  human,  .....          (p.  150) 

Felspar,  ingredients  of,    .  .  .  .  .  .60 

••       soda  in,          ......  61 

"       action  of  air  and  moisture  on,  .  .  .77 

Fertility,  what  dependent  on,   .  .  .  .      98,  152 

Fibrine,  analysis  of,        ......       217 

Fleitmann,  on  human  feces,  ....         (p.  150) 

Flemish  manure,  .......      208 

Flowers,  salts  in,        ......  86 

Fluorine,  in  rye  ashes,     .  .....        87 

Fruit  trees,  limits  of,  ....  26 

Furnace,  for  poudretto,    .  .  .  .  .    (p.  171) 

G. 
Gadou,  .......  208 


INDEX.  2P3 


Gcates,  character  of, 
' '  properti 
formatio 
"  almndar 
i:  action  o 
"  of  lime, 
"  of  magi 
"  of  alum 
"  of  iron, 
"  of 

Geic  acid, 


SBCTIOX. 

how  made, 

278 

uc  and  use  of, 

278 

;er  of, 

118 

ties  of, 

124 

on  of, 

.136 

,nt  in  soil, 

162 

of  lime  on. 

.       162 

118 

;nesia. 

.       120 

aina,    . 

121 

i  • 

.       122 

ganese, 

123 

.            . 

101,  116 

ics  of  Mulder, 

(p.  91) 

of, 

.       (p.  85) 

history  of, 

first  discovery  of,        ....  " 

contents  of,          .....       (p.  90) 

potash  in.  .  .  .  .  " 

called  ulmiu  in  trees,      .  .  .  (p.  86) 

same  as  .  .  .  (p.  89,  93,  94) 

constitution  of,    .  .  .  .  (p.  97,  98) 

names  of.       .  .  .  .  .  (p.  90) 

deQnition,  .  .  .        100,  101,  102.  105 

essential  to  crops,     .....  104 

in  all  forms  the  same,     .....       105 

a  generic  term,          .....  105 

described,  .....  108,  109 

divided,         ......  109 

soluble,  what  dissolved  by,        ....       109 

properties  of,  important  to  the  farmer,         .  .  109 

passage  from  insoluble  to  soluble,  .  110.113 

affinity  for  alumina,  .  .  .  .111 

"  lime,  magnesia,         .  .  .  Ill,  12G 

oxides  of  iron  and  manganese,   .  .  112 

uncombined,       ......       115 

"  properties  of,     .  .  .         160,116,117 

properties  of,  with  water.  .  .  .  .125 

relations  to  alkalies,  ....    126,  136 

quantity  in  soil,  .....       127 


291  INDEX. 

WCTKW. 

Geine,  twofold  action  ot,       .....  136 

"     cause  of  effect  of  alkalies  on,  .  .  .       137 

"     how  retained  in  soil,  .  .  .  .  •          138 

"     fertility  dependent  on,  .  .  .  151 

"    necessary  with  salts,         ....".      153 

"     action  of  oxygen  on,  .....  168 

"     as  required  by  nature,         .  .  .  .171 

"     in  cow-dung,  ......  185 

"     formed  daily  by  one  cow,  ....       189 

"          "      yearly        "    "          .  .  ,  .  189 

"    the  main  agricultural  value  of  manure,  .  .      191 

'•    action  of,  in  manure,  ....  193 

"     in  horse-dung,     ......       204 

"    compared  with  glycerine,      .  .  233,  234,  235,  236 

"     in  spent  lye,        ......       238 

•'    necessity  of  in  soil,     .....  127 

"    in  peat,   .......       256 

"     in  rivers  at  freshets,  .....  283 

"     intention  of  application  of,          .  .    •        .  .       291 

"     varies  much  in  soil,   .....  291 

"     lightest  part  of  soil,        .  .  .  .  .292 

"     absorption  of  moisture  by,     ....  294 

"  "  gas  by,        .  .  .  .  .       295 

"     slow  evaporation  of,  .  .  .  .  294 

fi     ellect  of  conversion  into  water,  ....       295 

'     electrical  relations  of,  ....  297 

"     basis  of  agriculture,        .....       20S 

''     table  of  composition  of,          .  .  .  (p.  97) 

"     comparison  of  natural  and  artificial,       .  (p.  97,  98) 

"     nuxlifications  of,  .  .  .  (p.  99) 

Gelatin,  description  of,    .  .  .  .  .  .218 

••        analysis  of,   .  .  .  .  .  .  218 

Glass,  green,  composition  of,  .  .  .  .        71 

Glauber's  salts,  ......  170 

Glycerine  .......      227 

"         composed  of,          .....  227 

"          the  organic  part  of  lye          ....      229 

"         compared  with  geine,        .  .  233,  234,  235,  236 

"          different  from  geine,  ....      23C 


1NDKX.  295 

SECTION. 

Grain,  crops  of,  in  Massachusetts,      ....  23 

"      northern  boundary  of,  ....         26 

"      failure  of,  in  Iceland,  ....  26 

"  cause  of,    .  .  .  .26 

"      temperature    ':  of  germination,  .  .  26 

Granite,  formation  of,      .  .  .  .  .  .5 

"        composed  of,  .  .  .  .  .         71, 72 

Guano,  great  quantity  of,  ....  .       211 

"      analyses  of,  .  .  .  .  .  .  212 

"      an  article  of  commerce,  ....       212 

"      Johnston's  average  table  of,  .  .  (p.  175) 

"      table  of  various  analyses  of,      .  .  .     (p.  174) 

"       proportion  to  be  used,  ....  208 

"      use  of,      .......      212 

"      ammonia  in,  .  .  .  .  .  .  212 

"       varieties  of,          ......       212 

"       and  superphosphates,  ....  308 

Gypsum,  application  of,  .  .  .  .  .  .151 

"         action  of,       ....  .  151 

H. 

Hair,  analysis  of,  .  .  .  .  .  .218 

Hair,  fertilizing  power  of,  .  .  .  286 

Hay,  action  of  catalysis  on,         .....      184 

"     yield  of  by  various  salts,  .  .  (p.  158  159) 

Hayes,  Dr.,  on  chlorides  in  rocks,  .  .  .  .88 

Heat,  absorbed  by  soils,         .....  293 

Hen,  food  of,        .  .  .  .  .  .214 

c       "  analysis  of,    .  .  .  .  .  214 

"     eggs  of,  «      .  ....      214 

"     excrements  of,  "  .  .  .  .  .  214 

"  "  salts  in,        .  .  .  .  .214 

•'  "  and  superphosphates,     .  .  .  309 

"     agricultural  value  of,        .  .  .  .  .214 

Hog  manure,  .  .  ...  .  .  205 

"        "        value  of,      .  .  .  .  .  .       205 

"        "        contents  of,  .  .  .          (p.  152) 

"     urine,  analysis  of,   .  .  .  .  .  .       247 

Horn,  analysis  of,  .  .  .  .  .  218 


296  INDEX. 

.  TT  'IV. 

Hornblende,  ingredients  of,  60 

"           action  of,  air  and  moisture  on,  .             77 

Horse-dung,  analysis  of,  .            .           .  .           .            •      203 

"        "      value  compared  with  cow-dung,  .            204 

"        "      fermentation  of,                   .  .            .            .      204 

"        "      how  to  be  treated,           .           .  (p.  144) 

"     boiling  establishments,       .            .  .            .             .210 

Hruschauer,  analysis  of  vine  ashes,               .  .            .             21 

Human  excrement,  Fleitmann's  analysis  of,  .            .    (p.  150) 

"            "            Berzelius's        u            .  (p.  149) 

Humic  acid,         .                                   .  (p.  98) 

Humin,          .                                               .  102 

Humus,    .                        .  (p.  95) 

"      constituents  of,                      .            .  (p.  94) 

"      formation  of,       .            .            .  (p.  94) 

Humin,  formula  of,    .            .  (p.  94) 

Humic  acid,  "         formation  of  apocreriates  by,  .            .      12(5 

Humate  of  ammonia,  (p.  95) 

Hydrogen,         .  .40 

"          in  sandy  soil,       .            .            .  .            .            127 

"          considered  as  unity,  .            .            .55 

"          combination  of,  .             .            .  .            .              55 

"          excess  of,  in  decaying  soil,  .            .            .       100 

"          group,  in  organic  bodies,           .  .            .            101 

I. 

Indian  corn,  northern  limit  of    .  .  .  .26 

"        "    temperature  of  germination,     ...  26 

Iowa  soils,  analysis  of,    .  .     (p.  33) 

Iodine,  in  land  plants, 

Irrigation,  .  .  254,  279,  281,  282,  283 

most  fertile  source  of  benefit  from,  .  .      283 

"         natural,   ......  286 

Iron,  carburet  of,  .  .  .  .  .65 

"    geutc  of,          ......  122 

'•     phosphate  of,         .  .  .  .  .  .80 

"     silicate  of,          ......  48 

"    sulphate  of,  formation,       .  ....        79 

"  '•  action,       .....  82 


INDEX.  29V 

SKCnox. 

Iron,  sulphuret  of,  .  .  65 

•'  decomposition  of,  .  .79 

"     combining  weight  of,          .  .  .  .  .56 

Isinglass,  physical  properties  of,        ....  37 

Isotheral  line,       .......         26 

Isochimenal  line,        ......  26 

Isomorphism,  law  of,  .  .  .  .  .94 

J. 

Jackson,  C.  T.,  Dr.,  on  peat,  ....  258 

Jacquemart,  on  peat  ayd  ammonia,        ....      278 

"   various  manures,       .  .  (p.  1GO) 

Jauffret's  manure,  principles  of,  ....      278 

Johnston,  Professor,  analysis  of  yard-dung,  .          (p.  149) 

"  "        of  night-soil,  table  of,  .  208 

"  "  soil  not  dependent  on  rocks,          .  .        21 


Krocker,  on  amount  ammonia  in  soil,      .  .  .   (p.  156) 

Kuhlmann,  on  nitrogenous  manures,  .      (p.  157,  159,  160) 

L. 

Lawes,  on  the  value  of  manure  ashes,     .  .  .   (p.  154) 

Law  of  substitution,  .....  95 

Life,  a  catalytic  power.    ......      139 

Life,  first  action  of,     .  .  .  .  .  .  171 

Lime,  action  of,    .....  159,161,162 

"  "        on  vegetable  fibre,   .  .  .     160,  162 

"  "        on  free  acids  in  soil,       .  .  •  162,  163 

"      properties  of,    .  .  .  .  .  •  160 

"      secretion  of,  ......         18 

"      in  soil,  ......  30 

"      sufficiency  of,  in  soil,        .....        75 

"       not  free  ".....  76 

"      combining  weight  of,        .  .  .  .  .56 

"      in  dung,  ......  192 

''      in  eggshells,          ......      215 

"      in  granite,        ......  72 

13* 


298 


INDEX. 


Lime,  in  piuc  plains,        .            .            .                     *  . 

"  in  wheat  straw,            .... 

"  place  of,  may  be  supplied,            .            .            , 

"  corrective  of  too  much, 

"  hastens  decay,                                                       . 

"  misapplication  of, 

"  caustic,      ...... 

"        greedy  of  carbonic  acid, 

"  carbonate  of,         .           .            .            .           , 

in  ashes,  .  . 

"  "            extent  of  use,           .            .           . 

"  "             in  flowers  and  leaves,     . 

"  composts  of,          .           .           .           .           , 

"  geates  of,         . 

solubW,  . 

"  "         insoluble,     .... 

<;  phosphate  of,          ....           , 

"  "             cause  of,             ... 

"  "             in  all  soil,                                        , 

"  "             in  bones  of  graminivorous  animals, 

"  "             in  vegetables, 

"  "             in  grain  and  cotton, 

"  superphosphate  of,           .            .           .           . 

"  "              how  made, 

"  "               how  used,       .            .            . 

"  "               solubility  of,  in  water, 

"  "               and  soda  ash, 

"  "                "    guano, 

"  "                 "    nitrates,  . 

"  "               cost  of,      . 

"  "               and  fowl  droppings,   . 

"  "              double,  composition  of,     . 


"      silicate  of, 

"      sulphate  of, 

"  "  in  all  soil, 

"      muriate  of, 
Loam,  formation  of, 
Locomotive  cinders,  as  manure, 


53, 


•••KIT;  'V. 

73,74 

74 

96 

124 

.      136 

.    160,  161 

62 

161 

14,  45,  57 

.      92,  164 

.      169 

86 

.      166 
118 

.      118 
119 

.  57,  82 
84 
85 
86 
86 
86 

304-306 
307 

.      308 
306 

.       308 
308 

.      309 
307 

.      309 

306 

48 

57,  80,  82,  83 

84 

170 

76 

278 


INDEX.  299 

SUCTION. 

M. 

Magnesia,  .......        18 

"        combining  weight  of,          ....  56 

"        caustic,  ......        62 

"        may  supply  the  place  of  lime,       .  .  .  91 

"        geate  of,          .  .  .  .  .  .120 

"        phosphate  of,  in  vegetables,  ...  85 

"        silicate  of,        .  .  .  .  .  .48 

Man,  the  journeyman  of  nature,       ....  290 

Manganese,  geate  of,      ......       123 

silicate  of,          .....  48 

Manure,  ......  172,  252 

'•      the  farmer's  first  requisite,  ....  172 

"      what  composed  of,         .....       172 

"      immense  variety  of,  ....  174 

'•      divisible  into  three  classes,        ....       175 

"      chiefly  of  the  third  class,      ....  176 

"      standard  measure  of,  .  .  .  177,  179 

"      the  elements  of  fertility,        ....  178 

"      contents  of,  .  .  .  .  .178 

"      the  type  of,    .  .  .  .  .  .  179 

"        composition  of,         .  .  .  .      179 

"      from  one  cow,  ....        189,  190,  191 

"      chief  value  of,     .  .  .  .       193.  194,  195,  261 

"      rich  in  proportion  to  nitrogen,          .  .  .    196,  261 

"      what  reduced  to,  .  .  .  .  .      206 

"      three  varieties,  different  properties  of,         .  .  206 

comparative  value  of,  .  .      207 

"      long  and  short,          .  .  (p.  145) 

"      weight  of  cubic  foot  of,  .  .  .  .    (p.  149) 

"      various  sorts  of,         .....  208 

dung  of  fowls,      .  .  .  .  .  .213 

"  "        good  results  from  use  of,       .  .  213 

"      not  containing  nitrogen,  ....      224 

"      from  salts  only,          .  .  .  .  239 

chiefly  from  liquid  animal  evacuations,        239 
"      of  peculiar  salts,  .....      239 

"      of  animal  acids,          .....    239,  240 

"      liquid  of  cow.  composition  of,    .  .  .  .      243 


00  INDEX. 


Manure,  liquid  of  cow,  compared  with  dung,  .  .  243 

"  •'      quantity  annually  from  one  cow,  effects  of,  244 

"  "        of  horse,  .  .  .  .  .245 

"  "        of  man,       .....  248 

"      natural,  insufficient  for  all,         ....      252 

"      artificial,        ......  253 

"  "        distinction  of,  from  animal,     .  .  .      253 

"  "        first  in  this  class,     ....  254 

"  "        others        "  ....      254 

"      green,  action  upon  peat,        ....  270 

"      artificial,  cost  per  cord,  .  .  .          274,  276 

"  *•    compared  with  cow-dung,     .  .  274 

"  preparation  of,  in  best  manner,          .  .      274 

"      other  sources  of,  .  .  .  284 

"      sheep,  analysis  of,  .....      205 

"      hog,   ...  ...  205 

<;      sheep,  value  of.    .  .  .  .  .  .      205 

Margarine,      .......  227 

Margaric  acid,      .......      227 

Metalloids,  defined,     .  .  .  .  .  .       40,  50 

number  of,    .  .  .  •  •         43,  45,  58 

"         characters  of,        .....  65 

combinations  of  with  oxygen,  .  .  .66 

action  of  air  and  water  on,          ...  78 

"         continually  become  salts,     .  .  .  .79 

selected  by  plants,  ....  87 

Metalloid  compounds,      ......        40 

Metals,  ......  41 

Mica,  properties  of.  .  .  .  .  .37 

"    ingredients  of,    ...  .  .  60 

"    action  of  air  and  wet  on.    .  .  .  .  .77 

Minerals,  simple,        ......  35 

"        number  of,        ....  38,  59 

"          "        limited  knowledge  of,        .  .  .  38 

"          "        elements  of,      .  .  .  .  .39 

"          "        table  of  constitution  of,     .  .  .  59 

"          "        three  classes  of,  ....        60 

Mitchell,  on  sea  water,  lime,  and  peat,          .          .  .  .  270 

Motion,  in  seed*  and  plants,  remarks  on,  .  .    (p.  162) 


INDEX.  SOI 

KKCTIO.V. 

Motion,  chemically  induced  in  soil,  .            .  i                     .  98 
Mould,  vegetable,  defined,          .            .            .            .            .114 

"      organic  elements  of,  according  to  Berzelius,          (p.  145) 

Muck,  action  on  sand,            .....  289 

Mud,  value  of,       ......          258,  259 

"    compared  with  dung,    .....  259 

"     of  freshets,  analysis  of,                   .            .            .            .  284 

Muriates,         .......  170 

"       source  of,  .  .  .  .  .  .84 

N. 

Nails,  the,  analysis  of,                                                 .  218 

Nature,  beneficence  of,    .           .            .           .           .           .  285 

Neutral  group  of  organic  bodies,      ....  101 

Night-soil,  table  of  analysis  of,    .            .             .            .            .  208 

Soubeiran's  analysis  of,                 ...  208 

"          composition  of,           ...            .            .  205 

"                                   nitrogen  in,                      .            .  205 

Nitrates,  .                         ......  166 

"        action  of,     .            .            .            .            .            .  167 

"        in  soil,  source  of.                       .            .            .            .  126 

"        of  soda,  its  effects  on  grass,             .            .            .  188 

Nitrification  in  soil,        .            .                         ...  126 

Nitric  acid,  action  of  on  humic,        ....  126 

on  humate  of  ammonia,   .            .            .  126 

Nitre,  composition  of,            .....  168 

"      one  of  the  most  active  salts,        ....  168 

Nitro-humic  acid,      .....  (p.  99) 

Nitrogen  in  soil,             ......  101 

"         in  ?andy  soil,          .....  127 

"        in  geine,             ......  127 

:'         in  air,          ......  167 

'        source  of,  for  roots  and  seeds,              .            .            .  167 

"        in  manure,              .....  178 

"        produced  yearly  by  one  cow,               .            .            .  191 

"         action  of,    .             .             .             .             .             .  194 

"        the  chief  enriching  quality  in  manure,            .            .  19C 

"        the  basis  of  ammonia,         ...            .            .  196 

"        in  dung,  source  of,                   .            .            .            .  197 


S02  INDEX. 

•BOW. 

Nitrogen  in  hay,  what  becomes  of,  .  .  .  .  198 

"        in  horse-dung,  .....       204 

"        in  night-soil,  ......  205 

"        in  cow-dung,    ......       268 

••        distinguishing  feature  of  organized  bodice,  .  217 

"        measures,  value  of  manure,     .  .  .    (p.  155) 

"        how  limited  in  value,         .  .  (p.  160) 

Nitrogen  effective,  as  decay  is  rapid,     .  .  .    (p.  155) 

"        remarks  on  its  effects  on  vegetation,        .         (p.  156) 

Norton,  Professor  J.  P.,  on  fertile  soils,  .  .  .21 

O. 

Oats,  limit  of,  .  .  .  .  .  .       26,  28 

"    temperature  of  germination,        .  .  .  .26 

Oil  of  vitriol  free  in  superphosphate  of  lime,          .  .  304 

"      quantity  for  raw  bones,    ....       30."> 

"          "  "  steamed  bones,    .  .  305 

"          "  "  bone  ash,      .  .  .  .305 

"          "  "  sugar  house  refuse,         .  .  305 

Oils,  action  of  air  on,    .  .  .  .  .  .      224 

"    action  on  silicates,        .....  224 

Oleicacid,          .......       227 

Oleine,          .......  227 

Organic  matter  in  cow-dung.     .  .    •  .  .       180 

"  "  "        according  to  Morin,    .  .  .181 

"  M.  Penot,    .  .       182 

"  "  •'        ultimate  analysis  of,  \  186 

Oxides,  metallic,  ......        4!) 

"      of  iron,  combining  weight  of,  .  .  -r>C 

"      of  manganese,  ......        5<; 

Oxygen,        .  .  .  .  .  .  .        40,  49 

"      combining  weight  of,     .  .  .  .  .56 

•'      in  bases  of  organic  acid  salts,          ...  98 

"      in  sandy  soil,     ......       127 

"      action  of,  on  geine,  .  .  .  .  168 

"  "  silicates,  .  .  .  .  .168 

"      in  water,  action  of,  ....  281 

*      group  of  organic  bodies,  .  .  .  .101 

Ox,  quantity  of  manure  from  one,   .  .  (p.  148) 


INDEX.  303 

SECTION. 
P. 

Pearlash,  properties  of,  .....  46 

'  to  be  used  one-half  more  than  soda-ash,  .  .  265 

Peat, 254,  255 

"     analysis  of,       ......  256 

"    varieties  of,  ......      257 

"     water  in,  ......  259 

"     value  of,    .  .  .  .  .  .  .259 

"     ashes,  contents  of,  .  .  .  .  163 

"     compared  with  cow-dung,  ....       254 

"     salts  and  geine  in,        .  .  .  .  .  260 

"    resemblance  to  cow-dung,  ....       260 

"     ammonia  in,     .  .  .  .  .  .  260 

"    power  wanting  in,  .....       261 

"    power  wanting  in,  how  to  be  given.     .  .  .  262 

"     addition  of  alkali  to,          .....      264 

"     quantity  of  alkali  to  hundred  weight,  .  .  266 

"  "  "          cord,  fresh  dug,        .  .  267,  269 

"  <;  <l          dry,          .  .  .        267,  269,  271 

li     dung  to  be  added  to,     .     .  .  .  .  270,276 

"     action  of  dung  on,  .  .  .  276 

"     boiled  with  alkali,  ....  271,  272 

"     mixed  with  spent  ashes,  ....  272 

"     charred,      .....  278 

"     action  of  lime  and  salt  on,  .  .  .  276 

"  sal-ammoniac  on,  ....      276 

1    converted  by  other  sources  into  soluble  manure,          .  277 

"    mixed  with  urine,  .....  277,  278 

"    necessity  of  fermentation  in,    .  .  .  .  260 

"     submarine,  ......      276 

"  and  salt  water,  .....  276 

Phosphates,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .52 

action  of,  .....  169 

"  proportional  to  nitrogen,  .  .  .  (p.  162) 

Phosphorus,  equivalent  of,  .  .  .  .  .  57 

"  existence  of,  .....  84 

Phosphoric  acid,         ......  57 

equivalent  of,  ....         57 

"  properties  of,  .  .  .  .  304 


30i  INDEX. 

necno*. 
Phosphurets,         .......        49 

action  of  air  on,  ....  78 

Pigeon  dung,       .......      213 

"        "      value  of,  .....  214 

Pine  ashes,  analysis  of,  .  .  .  .  .163 

"    plains,  lime  and  potash  in,  .       73,  74 

Plants  for  food,    .......        22 

product  of,  .....  22 

"      repay  labor  of  cultivation,  ....        22 

"      natural  limit  oP,          .....  24 

"      artificial      "          .  .  .       -    .  .  .24 

•"      limits  of,  what  determined  by,  .  .  .  52 

"      laws  of  distribution  of,  .  .  .  .26 

"      irregularity  of  limits  of,          ....  26 

"      limits  of  grain  bearing  on  mountains,      .  .  .28 

"      earthy  parts  of,  .....  39 

"      not  all  contain  the  same  element1?,          .  .  .88 

"      elements  of,  return  to  earth,  ....  88 

'•      always  contain  salts  and  silicates,  .  .  .91 

"      always  form  acids,      .....  93 

"      galvanic  action  of,  .  .  .  .  .171 

"      decomposing  action  of,  ....  171 

"      animal  principles  in,  ...      217 

"  "  "  analysis  of,  .  .  217 

Plaster  of  Paris,  formation  of,     .  .  .  .  .79 

application  of,  .         '   .  .  151 

"          "          action  of,  ...  151,  170 

Ploughing  in  of  crops,  .....  287 

"  "       great  fertilizing  power  of,  .  .      287 

"  "       green,  action  of,  .  .  288 

"       compared  with  dry,          .  .  .      288 

Polstorff,  experiments  of,  .  .  .        (p.  130) 

Potash,  silicate  of,  .....  48,  165 

"        combining  weight  of,  ....  56 

"        solubility  in  water,  .  .  .        62 

"        caustic,  ......  62 

•'        in  granite,  ......        72 

"        carbonate  of,  in  ashes,  ....  92 

14        may  supply  the  place  of  lime,   ....        96 


IXDKX.  305 

SECTION . 

Potash,  hastens  decay,   .....  .        136 

"        to  be  used  one-half  more  than  soda,  .  .  265 

Potassium,  sulphuret  of,  .  .  .  .  .  .65 

Potato,  limits  of,         ......  26 

Poudrette,  .....  208,  2D9,  210 

mode  of  making,  .  .          (p.  166  to  172) 

"         composition  of,  .....      208 

"         ammonia  in,  .....  208 

peat  in,  ......       209 

salts  in,       ......  209 

Proteine,  .....  (p.  99,  100) 

"        description  of,  .  .  .  .  218 

"        chemical  formulae  of,      .  .  .  .  .219 

"        action  of  weak  acid  on,        .  .  .  (p.  99,  100) 

Putrefaction,  products  of,  .....       100 

table  of  products  of,     .  .  .  .  100 

Q. 

Quartz,  formation  of,  .....  60 

"       odor  produced  by  friction,         .  .  .  .84 

R. 

Rain,  natural  irrigation.         .....  286 

"      fertilizing  power  of,  ....      286 

"      ammoniacal  salts  in,    .  .  .  .  .  286 

Replacement,  of  elements,  :  .  .  .        94 

Richardson,  analysis  of  yard-dung,   .  .  (p.  146) 

Rogers,  J..  on  manure  ashes,        .  .  .  .    (p  155) 

Rule  for  estimating  soil  ingredients,  .  .  (p.  37) 

Rocks,  primitive,  .  .  .  .  .  5,  0 

"      secondary,       .  .  .  .  .  .  5,8 

''       trappean,  ......  7 

origin  of,  .  .  .  .  10,  11 

''       chemical  constituents  of,  ....  8 

•'       two  great  classes  of,  ...  10, 11 

"       distribution  of,     .  .  .  .  .  .11 

"       first  class  of,  ......  12 

"      second      "......        13 

"      chemical  constitution  of  ...       15, 39 


306  INDEX. 

•BOMC, 

Rocks,  chemical  constitution  of,  difference  in,    .  .  .        15 

"       fossiliferous,    ......  16 

••      non-fossiliferous,  .  ....        17 

"      cause  of  difference,     .....  18 

"      amount  of        "  .....        19 

"      only  one,  in  truth,     .....  19 

"      not  affect  vegetation,      ...  20,  26,  27,  28 

"      what  covered  by,        .....  30 

"      different  views  of,  .....        31 

"      compound,       ......  35 

"      composition  of,     .  .  .  .  .  .38 

"  number  of  elements  in,  ....  40,43 

"  great  bulk  of, 48 

"      enrich  soil,      ......  290 

"  action  of,  on  soil,  .....  290 

Rye,  limit  of, 26,  28 

"  temperature  of  germination,  ....  26 

S. 

Sal  ammoniac,  action  of,        .....  276 

Salt,  action  of,      .  .  .  .  .  .  1 19 

"  use  of,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  170 

Saltpetre,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .106 

"        action  of,    .  .  .  .  .  .  269 

alkali  in,  ......  2(!!> 

Suits. 40r  44,  45,  4(5,  50.  76 

"  super,  sub,  neutral,  .  .  57 

"  very  insoluble,  and  abundant,  ...  £0 

"  action  on  silicates,  .  .  .  .  133, 171 

"  "  of,  .  .  143,  144,  145,  146,  147,  148,  149.  150,  171 

"  fi  on  of  plants,  .  .  .  .  .  117 

•'  fertility  dependent  on,  .....  151 
"  connection  with  geine  necessary,  .  .  .  154 

"  action  of,  without  geincy  ....  155 

"  "  oa  soil  of  slato,  ....  155 

"  "  "  gneiss,  .....  155 

"  excels  of,  the  cause  of  barrenness,  .  .  156 

"  some  of  letter  effect  than  others,  .  .  .156 

"  divided  into  two  classes,  ....  .  158 


307  INDEX. 

SECTION. 

Suits,  first  class,  three  divisions,        ....  159 

"     constant  in  plants,  .  .  .  .  .91 

"     second  class  of,  .....  166 

"     quantity  of,  which  may  be  used,    ....      169 

"     two  classes  of,  poisonous,  ....  170 

"     in  cow-dung,  ......       180 

"        "        "       byMorin,  ....  181 

"        "        "       byM.  Penot,  .  .  .  .182 

"    in  bushel  of  dung,         .  .  .  .  .  188 

•'     formed  daily  by  one  cow,    .....       189 

"     formed  yearly  by  one  cow,        .  .  .  .  191 

"     in  horse-dung,         ......      204 

"     in  night-soil, 205 

"     in  excrements  of  a  hen,      .....       214 

"    in  animal  matter,  .....  216 

"     annually  evacuated  by  one  person,  .  .  .251 

"    in  urine,  ......     243,  249 

"     in  mud  and  peat,  .....       256 

'•    in  rivers,  at  freshets,    .....  283 

"     in  rain  and  snow,  .....      280 

"     intention  of  application  of,     .  .  .  .  291 

"     of  ammonia,  value  of,       .  .  .  .    (p.  158) 

'•'     of  crenic  and  apocrenic  acids,  sources  of,       .  .  126 

Sand,  improved  by  liming,         .....       133 

"    composition  of,  .....  13 

"    action  of  muck  on,  .....       289 

"     best  to  restore,  .....  290 

"    heaviest  part  of  soil,         .  .  .  ...       292 

Sandstone,  formation  of,       .....  5 

Science,  definition  of,     .  .  .  .  .  .       128 

"        application  to  agriculture,  .  .  .     128,  129 

Sea  eagle,  excrement  of,  .  .  .  .  .212 

"     water,  for  slacking  lime,  ....  276 

Serpentine,  ingredients  of,         .  .  .  .  .CO 

Seeds,  heat  and  cold  borne  by,  ....  26 

Sheep,  urine  of,    .  .  .  .  .  .  .      247 

Silex,  .  .  .  .  42, 48,  62,  69 

"     formation  of,  ......        48 

"     quantity  of,  in  rock,     ....  69 


£08  INDEX. 

mnox. 

Silex,  aa  an  acid  in  simple  minerals,       .  .  .  .59 

Silica,  combining  weight  of,  ....  56 

"      soluble,      .......        70 

Silicates, 40,  41,  42,  45,  4G,  76 

"        decomposition  of,  .....         76 

"        action  of,  carbonic  acid  on,  .  .  77,  131,  134,  285 

•'        selected  by  plants,       .....        87 

"        constant  in  plants,    .....  91 

"        no  action  on  each  other.  ....      131 

"        of  soil,  stationary,    .....  132 

"        of  potash,          ......      165 

"        action  of  oxygen  on,  .  .  .  .  168 

"        of  soda  in  spent  ashes,  ....       273 

"        unlimited  fertility  of,  .  .  .  .  289 

"        uniformity  of,    .  .  .  .  .  .291 

"        laws  of  combination  of,  .  .  .  56 

Silicon,     ........        43 

"      action  of,  with  oxygen,         ....  48 

"       sulphuret  of,       .  .  .  .  .  65,  83 

"      properties  of,  .....  C7 

Silicic  acid,         .  .  .  .  .  .  69,  71 

Siliciurets,     .......  49 

"         action  of  air  on,        .....         78 

Sinclair,  Sir  John,  on  sea  water,  and  peat,  .  .  .  276 

Skin  of  the  sole  of  the  foot,  an  analysis  of,       .  .  .218 

Slate,  .......  5 

Snow,  salts  in,    .  .  .  .  .  .  .       280 

Soda,  .  ....  42 

"     silicate  of,  .....        48 

"     silicate  of,  combining  weight  of,  .  .  5(1 

"     may  take  the  place  of  lime,          .  .  .  .96 

"     muriate  of,  action  of,  .  .  .  .  .  149 

Soil, 10 

"     only  one,  .  .  .  .  .  .  19 

"     all  primary,  ......        20 

"     transportation  of,  .....         30,  31 

"    chemical  composition  of,     .  .  .  .  .  32,  33 

••     analysis  of,         ......  33 

"    bulk  of,      ...  ...        48 


INDEX.  309 

SUCTION. 

Soil,  elements  in,      ......  40 

"     unvarying,  ......        58 

"    decay  of,  .  .  .  .  .  .  76 

"     organic  parts  of,     .  .  .  .  .  .88,  89 

"     inorganic      "  .....  89 

"          "         number  of  elements  in,    .  .  .  .89 

li     organic  MM  ...  89 

"     inorganic,  difference  of,       .  .  .  .  .90 

"     carbonaceous,    ......  102 

"     not  external  to  plants,         .....       140 

"     decomposed  by  plants,  ....    141,  147 

"     result  of  action  of  carbonates  on,  .  .  .  .       135 

"     sandy,  best  to  restore,   .....  290 

"     physical  properties  of,         ....  291,298 

"  "  "  characters  of,      ...  291 

"  "  "  what  dependent  on,  .  .       292 

"  "  "  relations  of,        .  .  .  292 

"     varieties  of,  ......       292 

"     sand  heaviest  part  of,    .  .  .  .  .  292 

"     most  important  character  of,  ...       293 

"  "  determined  by  weight,     .  293 

"     color  and  dryness  important  to,      .  ,  .  .       293 

"     relation  to  moisture  and  gases,  ....    294,  295 

"    fresh  ploughed,  evaporation  of,       .  .  .  .       295 

'•     light,  advantages  of,     .  .  .  .  .  295 

"     action  of  cold  on,    .  .  *  .  .  .       296 

"     electrical  relations  of,    .  .  .  .  .  297 

"     chlorine  in,  ......       298 

"     all  fertile  has  certain  elements,  ...  21 

'•     origin  of  four,  growing  grape  vine,  .  .  .21 

"    Johnston  on,      ......  21 

"     Norton  on  fertile,    .  .  .  .  .  .21 

"     table  of  analyses  of,  413,  ...  (p.  35) 

"    weight  of  cubic  foot  of,  ingredients,  amount  per  acre, 

rule  for,    .  .  .  .  .  .      (p.  37) 

"     remarks  on  analysis  of,  .  .  .  .  .  33 

"     divided  into  soluble  and  insoluble,  .  .      (p.  31) 

Soot,  a  powerful  manure,      .....  225 

"    salts  in,  .  .  .  .  .  .      225 


310  INDEX. 

amor. 
Soot,  analysis  of,  .  .  .  ...  226 

"     nitrogen  in,          ....  .  226 

"    capital  liquid  manure,  ....  226 

"    good  results  of,  in  England,  .  .  .  .226 

"    of  anthracite  coal,      .....  226 

Soubeiran,  analysis  of  yard-manure,      .  .  .    (p.  147) 

"          observations  on  nitrogen  in,       .  .          (p.  148) 

"          analysis  of  night-soil,  ....       208 

"  "        of  animalized  coal,       .  .  .  210 

"          on  mould  and  turf,  ....      278 

<;  "       and  dried  flesh,         .  278 

Spent  lye,          .  .  ...  .  .  170,  297 

"      "     salts  of,    ......  230 

"      "     alkali  in,        ......       230 

"      "     two  kinds  of,         .'  .  .  .  330 

"       "     first  kind,  analysis  of,  ...  230,  233 

"      "     second     "  231 

"      "     value  of,         ......       232 

"      "     action  of,  ....         236,  237, 238 

"      "     from  soda  soap,  imitation  of,  ...       238 

Spent  ashes,  composition  of,  ....  273 

Starch,  converted  into  sugar,     .....       137 

Stable  manure,  composition  ofv         .  .  .  .  176 

Stearine,  .......       227 

Stearic  acid,  ......  227 

Stinchccombe  farm,        ......       22(5 

Straw*,  table  of  value  of,      .  .  .  .          (p.  147) 

Substitution,  of  elements,          .  .  .  .       ...        94 

'  law  of,  .....  95 

Sulphur,  .  .  ....        43 

"       equivalent  of,          .  .  .  .  57 

Sulphates,  .  .  .  .  .  .  62,  170 

Sulphureta,    .......  49 

"         action  of  air  on,       .  .  .  .  .78 

Sulphuric  acid,  formation  of,  ....  57 

"          "       equivalent  of,    .  ...  .  .        57 

Sulpho-benzoic  acid,  .  .  .  .  (p.  99) 

Super-geates,       ......  120,  124 

Superphosphates,  ...  .    804-306 


INDEX.  311 

SUCTION. 

Superphosphates,  how  made,       .....       307 

"  how  applied,          ....  308 

Swamp  mud,        .......      254 

Sugar,  action  of  weak  acid  on,         .  .  .          (p.  117) 

T. 

Table  of  products  of  putrefaction,          ....      100 
Talc,  ingredients  of,                                       ...  60 

Temperature,  effects  of,    .                        .                                    .26 
Theories,  the  evils  of,             .            .            .            .            .  146 

Turf, 257 

U. 

Ulmin,  composition  of,     .  .  .  .  (p.  94)  101 

"      production  of,  ....  (p.  92) 

"      first  called  geine,  .  .  .  (p.  90) 

Ulmic  acid,    .  .  .  .  .  .  (p.  87)  101 

"        "      formation  of,  ....       (p.  93) 

li        li      composition  of,  .  .  .  .  (p.  94) 

Urea,  formation  of,  ...  139,  240,  242 

"      properties  of,    .  .  .  .  .  .  241 

"      composition  of,  .  .  .  .  .  242 

Uric  acid,        .......  243 

"      "     composition  of,  .....  243 

Urine  of  cow,  composition  of,  ....  243 

"      of  one  cow.  annually,        .....  244 

"      salts  in, 245.  246 

"      effects  of  watering  with,    .....  246 

"      of  horse,  analysis  of,    .  .  .  .  .  247 

"        value  of,  .....  247 

"     human,  "  .....  248 

"      analysis  of.  .....  248 

"      compared  with  horse  and  cow,  .  .     248,  24!) 

"      varies  with  food,    ......  250 

"      action  of  putrefaction  on,        .  .  .  .  259 

"      mixed  with  peat,    .....  277,  278 

"      of  hog,  analysis  of,       .  .  ..  .  .  2-17 

"      sheep,          .......  247 

V. 

Vegetable  mould,  .....          113,  114 


312  INDEX. 

•cnox. 

Vegetable  mould,  inorganic  elements  of,  .  .  '  .  115 

"  "  brown  powder  of,  .  .  .  .115 

"  "  properties  of,  .  .  116 

"  products,  two  classes  of,  .  .  .  220 

Vinegar,  properties  of,  .  .  .  .  .  246 

••  action  on  pearlash,  ....  246,  247 

Vital  principle,          ......  171 

Volcanoes,  cause  of,         ......          C 

"  products  of,  .....  12 

Von  Tschudi,  on  guano,  .  .  .  .    (p.  177) 

W. 
Water,  elements  of,    .  .  .  .  .  .  40 

"        composition  of,    .  .  .  .  .  .  52, 55 

"        in  plants,        ....  167 

"        pure,  action  of,  on  land,  ....      280 

"  "      air  in,   .  .  .  .  .  .  280 

"        with  air  expelled,  .  .  .  .281 

Weigmann,  experiments  of,    .  .  .  .          (p.  130) 

Wisconsin,  soils  of,  .      (p.  32) 

Wheat,  limits    of,      .  .  .  .  .  .26.  28 

"        conditions  necessary  for,  .  .  .  .2(5 

"        temperature  of  germination,  ...  26 

••        straw  ashes,  analysis  of,  ....       163 

Wood,  hard,  ashes,  analysis  of,  .  .  .  163 

Woodland,  evaporation  of,  ...       293 

Wool,  analysis  of,       .  .  .  .  .  .  218 

"     natural  soap  of,  for  manure,         .  222 

«  "        35  to  40  per  cent,  of,  .  .  222 

"  "          "        used  in  France,    ....      222 

Woollen  rags,  powerful  manure,       ....  222 

"  "     stronger  than  cow-dung,  ....      222 

Y. 

Yard-manure,  defined,  .  .           .           (p.  146) 

"    how  affected  by  age.  Ac.,  .            .            .            .     (p.  147) 

"    composition  of,            ....  (p.  147) 

"    analysis,  by  Richardson,  .            .            .            .     (p.  147) 

"         "        "    Johnston,  .                                  (p.  148) 

"        "    Soubeiran,  .            .            .            .    (p.  147) 

"    weight  of  cubic  foot  of.  .                     (p.  148) 


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